Why is Palmyra, a city in Syria, under special protection by UNESCO? Palmyra and the features of its ancient architecture Archaeological monuments of Palmyra.

Basic moments

The ruins of a rich ancient settlement have long been one of the main attractions of Syria, where tourists from Europe and Asia, America and even the most remote corners of the Pacific region flock annually, not to mention travelers from Russia and the CIS countries. Many historical artifacts are so well preserved that traveling to Palmyra felt quite comparable to traveling back in time. But in 2011, the popular tourist route was forced to close due to the outbreak of civil war in the country. The government barely managed to evacuate some valuable monuments from the city. The rest turned out to be untransportable.

Due to intense fighting, today's Palmyra is no longer the same as it was just a few years ago. The architectural heritage has suffered enormous damage. However, I am glad that it is not irreplaceable. The Syrian Arab Republic State Agency for the Protection of Monuments has officially announced that the ancient city of Palmyra will be restored. There is a lot of work ahead, including demining the territory, which is a task of paramount importance. But no one doubts that sooner or later, when true peace is established in this Middle Eastern country, the well-known and beloved tourist route will again become accessible to millions of travelers.

Story

The first mention of Palmyra dates back to the 19th century BC. Its founder is the Hurrian king Tukrisha, who ruled in northern Mesopotamia. At that time the city was called Tadmor. Under this name it is mentioned in the archives of the rulers of the city-state of Mari, which existed on the coast of the Euphrates in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e.

In biblical texts it is listed under a slightly different name - Fadmor. As stated in the Old Testament, the city was rebuilt in the 10th century BC after destruction by the Assyrians by none other than King Solomon himself, who ruled the Jews in 965-928 BC. The oasis city became the easternmost settlement in his domain. According to one legend, not people were involved in the construction, but... genies.

The location for the future settlement, which initially served as a transit point for caravans crossing the Syrian Desert, was not chosen by chance. Subsequently, large trade routes began to run here, which already by the 1st century AD. e. allowed Palmyra to become a major economic and cultural center of the region. In 260, on the vast territory of the Roman Empire, the separatist Kingdom of Palmyra arose with its capital in Palmyra. This became possible thanks to the crisis that gripped the huge state. Its most famous ruler was Queen Zenobia - a woman of extraordinary beauty, educated, ambitious and very powerful. She even announced separation from Rome, but soon the troops loyal to her were defeated, and she herself was taken prisoner.

Such a rapid increase in wealth and influence did not go unnoticed by either ill-wishers or enemies. One of them was the Roman emperor Aurelian, who in 271 decided to conquer the city. Local defenders were unable to resist the onslaught of the Roman legionaries with anything other than their courage. Palmyra surrendered to the mercy of the winner.

Before the foreign invasion, Palmyra was a thriving oasis. The Romans plundered its wealth and stationed their garrison here. In the 3rd-4th centuries they continued to develop the occupied areas, but the new structures they erected were purely defensive in nature. Slowly but surely, Palmyra turned into a walled camp, occupying an area smaller than the original city itself. The population began to decline sharply. And when the Byzantines came here, a border checkpoint was equipped. After them, the area came into the possession of the Arabs in 634, who brought the “city of palm trees” to complete destruction. Sandstorms also took their toll. Over time, they brought a lot of sand here, which, layered on top, hid the ruins of Palmyra underneath.

New development of Palmyra

This is how the history of an ancient city that never prospered ended ingloriously. And who knows, maybe they would never have remembered it if not for the English merchants who opened Palmyra to Europeans in 1678. Thus, interest in ancient Tadmor flared up with renewed vigor. Later, local residents began to develop its surroundings, who built their shacks here. They did not treat the historical heritage very carefully: ancient buildings were partially destroyed and partially looted. With the collapse of the Ottoman Empire following World War I, what is now Syria came under French occupation. The new authorities demolished the squalid huts of the local residents and decided to restore and restore Palmyra.

Among the discoverers are also the Italian traveler Pietro Della Balle, who accidentally stumbled upon the ruins of the ancient city, and the English pastor Halifax, who became interested in Palmyra inscriptions upon his arrival in 1692. He even copied the discovered records, but was unable to decipher them himself. A little earlier, in 1678, his namesake, the major English merchant Halifax, accidentally came across the ruins of Palmyra in one of the most inaccessible places. The study, however, was postponed until better times: James Dawkins and Robert Wood began to study them closely only in 1751-1753. Actually, archaeological excavations started only at the end of the 19th century, and continued until the outbreak of the civil war in Syria. In 2008, archaeologists discovered the foundation of the largest temple in the country, the dimensions of which were 47 by 27 meters.

The outstanding Russian historian of art and antiquity, archaeologist Boris Vladimirovich Farmakovsky (1870-1928) took part in the excavations of Palmyra. In his memoirs, he noted that the majestic monuments concentrated here, although cut off from the rest of the world by sand dunes, always excited the minds of not only scientists, but also all connoisseurs of beauty, seeming like something fabulously magnificent. Our compatriot recognized that Palmyra was an outstanding cultural center of the Ancient East. Art, he noted, was one of the essential needs of the local population, who loved it and worshiped its creators.

What are the ruins of Palmyra? They lie at the foot of several hills and extend from southeast to northwest for about 3 kilometers and include the remains of structures belonging to different historical periods. In the architecture of some - for example, the late antique era - the Corinthian order prevails. A notable structure in the space occupied by the ruins is the majestic Temple of the Sun or Baal (Helios), which is 55 meters long and 29 meters wide, equipped with 16 columns in each long face and 8 in each short one. The vault of the temple, broken into cassettes, and the stucco ornamentation of the walls and friezes, made of fruits and leaves, have been preserved. Opposite the temple, when viewed from the northwest, there was an entrance gate, very similar in architecture and design to the Triumphal Arch of Constantine in Rome (we will look at them in more detail below).

To the west of Baal (Helios) the remains of other religious buildings were discovered - temples and altars, as well as colonnades, palaces and aqueducts. In a small valley behind the ruins of the city wall, apparently built during the time of Emperor Justinian, an ancient necropolis of impressive size has been preserved. It consists of numerous burial caves and family tombs in the form of towers made of large hewn stones (there are 60 such family crypts in total). On the top of one of the nearby hills stands a castle built by the Arabs.

Attractions

The most recognizable landmark of Palmyra is the Arc de Triomphe. The height of its main vault is 20 meters. It was decorated with sculptures of lion heads with open mouths and carvings made from various stones. It was this outstanding architectural monument, built in the 2nd century AD during the reign of Emperor Septimius Severus, that was depicted on the cover of the old Soviet textbook “History of the Ancient World” for grade 5.

Being a real work of art, the arch was not initially called triumphal. This name was given to it by Europeans, who were accustomed to the fact that such monumental structures were usually erected to commemorate major military victories. But in this case they were wrong. By building double gates, the Palmyra architects solved another problem: by building them at an angle, they seemed to straighten one of the main streets of the city, visually hiding its break.

The street itself, which stretches 1.1 km from the Arc de Triomphe through the entire city, should be mentioned separately. It is divided into three longitudinal stripes. The two narrow side ones were intended for pedestrians, and the wide middle part was for the passage of horse-drawn carriages and horsemen. The role of “dividers” on the route was performed by four rows of 17-meter columns. In total there were one and a half thousand of them, that is, in each row there were 375. The central street played the role of the main commercial thoroughfare, while behind the columns themselves there were shops, warehouses with goods and residential buildings of Palmyra.

Whatever you say, trade was both the heart and circulatory system of the ancient city: if it had stopped, life itself, which was seething and seething here, would have stopped. In this sense, Palmyra can be compared with any modern metropolis, including the capital. The role of a market and at the same time a meeting place was played by the Agora trading area, which had the shape of a rectangle and was surrounded by porticoes. There was also a tribune here that served as a kind of local media: representatives of the Senate spoke from it, divulging their decrees to the people, and speakers reporting on the latest events in the city. The developed economy is also evidenced by the find known as the “Palmyra Tariff” - a set of customs rules in the local language, which was a surzhik of Greek and Aramaic. This stele with inscriptions was found just next to the square. Now it is kept in the State Hermitage (St. Petersburg).

Another majestic structure, very well preserved among the ruins, is the Tetrapylon architectural complex, considered the most beautiful structure of the ancient settlement. It consists of four monumental bases, each with four columns, topped in turn by a flat stone platform. The height of the columns reaches 17 meters, there are sixteen of them in total and they are carved from stone - all except one, made of pink marble. The stone platforms “during life” of Palmyra were decorated with statues, but they have not survived to this day. But even without them, Tetrapylon looks very impressive, delighting not only tourists, but also specialist architects.

In the busiest quarter, somewhat away from the mentioned street of the Great Colonnades, there was a theater of the ancient Roman era, the characteristic feature of which was stepped stone benches. It adjoined the Senate building, and both buildings were surrounded by porticoes in the Ionic style, decorated with statues of not only Roman, but also local commanders, bureaucratic nobility, and outstanding artists. The theater survived due to... its abandonment. At one time it was completely filled with sand, which was cleared only in 1952. It was he who protected the structure from destructive external influences. True, the restorers, according to many experts, somewhat overdid it. In deciding to give the theater a more spectacular look, they added some details to the landscape that would have been unusual for a building of this kind from the 2nd century AD. e. were not typical.

Ancient Palmyra was a multifaceted, multilingual and, as they would say now, multiconfessional city. Representatives of the most diverse peoples of the vast Roman Empire flocked here, living with each other in peace and harmony. Each ethnic group brought with them a belief in their gods, building many temples to worship them. In this sense, the population of the city was an example of religious tolerance and simply human tolerance, which is so lacking in many hot spots of the modern world, especially in the Middle East.

The Temple of Bel (or Bela) is rightfully considered the most majestic among the local religious buildings. It was erected in 32 AD. e. in honor of the god of the sky, identified with Jupiter, the supreme deity of the Romans. The ruins of the shrine, at the steps of which the street of the Great Colonnades rests, are well preserved. The dimensions of the main hall are impressive: 200 sq. meters. Two niches adjoin it. In the right niche was Bel himself in the form of a golden statue, above which a stone rose was installed directly on the ceiling. It has survived to this day, which cannot be said about the very statue of the main god of Ancient Mesopotamia.

The left niche has the appearance of a tent, the arch of which is decorated with an image of Jupiter surrounded by the seven planets of the solar system known at that time and the twelve signs of the zodiac. In this part of the temple, which absorbed the features of both ancient and Syrian architecture, there were sculptures of Bel and two more gods of the so-called Palmyra triad - Yarikhbol and Aglibol. The ancient city also had temples dedicated to the gods Ishtar and Zeus, Aziz, Nabo and Ars, and the goddess Allat. And all these religious cults miraculously “coexisted” in one city. It was very convenient for foreign caravan drivers visiting Palmyra. Everyone found a temple of “their” deity, which they could freely enter and ask for protection.

Palmyra: today

This city, like a pearl, adorned the desert for many centuries. It knew periods of ups and downs, victories and defeats, but was subsequently destroyed, plundered and forgotten. However, his past was so magnificent that it could not disappear without a trace. Architectural monuments discovered on the territory of ancient Palmyra give us the opportunity to imagine what the settlements of the powerful Roman Empire looked like two thousand years ago. Walking along its streets, looking at arches, temples and other structures, tourists gave free rein to their imagination. The imagination depicted the rich life of the magnificent “city of palm trees” in the days of its heyday.

This was the case until 2012. Today, due to the war in Syria, the ruins of one of the outstanding centers of late antiquity can only be admired through photographs and videos. And even then they do not reflect the current state of this open-air museum. After Palmyra was captured by the terrorist organization Islamic State (ISIS) in 2015 and annexed to its pseudo-caliphate, militants began to desecrate the sights of the ancient civilization.

The whole world watched with shudder and indignation as they, hiding behind the banner of Islam, robbed, blew up and destroyed the priceless treasury included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. First, they demolished the statue of Lion Allat, in which the king of beasts is guarding a gazelle (the composition adorned the temple of the ancient Arab goddess Allat). Then they blew up the Temple of Baalshamin. The next victim was 82-year-old Khaled al-Asaad, a famous Syrian archaeologist who was the chief custodian of Palmyra and one of the leading researchers of the ancient complex. Fanatics first captured him, and then, accusing him of studying pagan “idols” and scientific collaboration with “infidels,” they publicly beheaded him. The scientist's body was left in the main square of Palmyra.

The Islamists also blew up the Temple of Bel and destroyed three burial towers in the Valley of the Tombs, which were better preserved than others (they were created during the Roman period and were intended for the families of the local nobility). In the past tense, unfortunately, we have to talk about the Arc de Triomphe, the symbol of Palmyra and all of ancient Syria. The militants also blew it up - significant for the whole world. Satellite images have confirmed the fact of these flagrant crimes against the priceless heritage of human civilization. Meanwhile, terrorists do not destroy everything. This can hardly be explained by the condescension that suddenly awakened in them. Experts have no doubt that many artifacts were transported intact to the black market and ended up in private collections, and the proceeds, considerable ones, ended up in the coffers of ISIS.

For a long time, no one was able to resist medieval barbarism, until the Syrian army, with the support of the Russian Aerospace Forces, launched a decisive offensive against the militants’ positions. The assault on Palmyra began on March 23, 2016, and on the same day, units loyal to President Bashar Assad liberated its historical part. On March 25, government troops cleared the historical castle of Fakhr ad-Din, the Necropolis Valley and the fortress, restaurant district and Semiramis hotel complex located in the northwestern part of the city from terrorists.

The bandits, retreating, put up fierce resistance. On March 26, Syrian troops tore down the black flag of the Islamic State from the castle and demonstratively burned it. On March 27, the ancient city was completely cleared of cruel fanatics. Sappers immediately began clearing mines from streets and houses. On March 28 at 15:00 local time, the national flag of the Syrian Arab Republic was solemnly raised in the center of Palmyra.

Prospects for the restoration of Palmyra

According to the government agency for the protection of monuments, the restoration of Palmyra will include three stages. At the first, they will take care of the safety of unstable buildings so that they do not completely collapse, at the second, most of the monuments will be restored, and at the third, the temples of the gods Bel and Baalshamin, destroyed by Islamists, will be rebuilt. Work started in April 2016.

Maamoun Abd al-Karim, head of the Syrian Department of Museums and Antiquities, estimates that rebuilding the city will take up to five years. Optimism is inspired by the fact that about 80% of ancient structures were not seriously damaged.

The Russian side, which actively participated in the liberation of Palmyra, will also provide assistance in demining the city.

According to the order of Vladimir Putin, specialists from the International Mine Action Center of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation were sent here. Our country will not remain aloof from restoration work. The State Hermitage will be involved in the restoration of Palmyra's ancient monuments.

Ancient Palmyra, located in the Syrian desert, suffered from wars more than once during its long history. In 272, it was destroyed by Emperor Aurelian, who restored Roman control over the city. In 744, the Arabs did the same, asserting their own power over the city. In modern times, the historical part of Palmyra has been recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. It seemed that wars would no longer disturb the majestic ruins of the ancient city. However, in 2015, Palmyra was captured by Islamic State militants - and only last week Syrian troops returned the city to government control. How has the historical part of the ancient city changed in less than a year?

Palmyra (Arabic: Tadmor, “city of palm trees”) is an ancient city located in the depths of the Syrian Desert on the way from Damascus to the Euphrates Valley. In the 2nd–1st centuries. BC. Palmyra became an important center of caravan trade, the profits from which contributed to the growing wealth of its elite and increased its political influence in the region. In the 1st century AD Palmyra became part of the Roman Empire. At the same time, the city retained its autonomy, continued to be governed by its own government and use its own laws.

The Great Colonnade of Palmyra in an engraving by Robert Wood from his book The Ruins of Palmyra, published in 1753. In the distance, the silhouette of the triumphal arch, destroyed by militants on October 5, 2015, is easily recognizable

The time between the beginning of the 2nd and the middle of the 3rd century was the Golden Age of Palmyra, when its wealth and political importance reached its apogee. In 261, the Palmyraan king Odaenathus defeated the Persians and was recognized as the supreme military leader of the Roman forces in the East.

After the death of Odaenathus in 267, the Palmyra kingdom, which was headed by his wife Zenobia, was separated from Rome. In 272, Emperor Aurelian defeated the Palmyran army, captured the city itself and took Zenobia prisoner. After an attempt at a new rebellion, the city was stormed and destroyed, and its inhabitants were sold into slavery. In 293–305 Emperor Diocletian built a camp here for the I Illyrian Legion. Emperor Justinian restored and expanded the city's fortifications, making Palmyra part of the Roman defensive system in the East. After the destruction by the Arabs in 744, Palmyra lost the remnants of its significance. Its houses and walls collapsed over time and were half covered with sand.

In 1678, Palmyra was visited by the English merchant Halifax, who brought news of the ruins of an ancient city lost in the depths of the desert to Europe. In 1751–1753 the ruins were explored and sketched by the expedition of Robert Wood and James Dawkins. Systematic archaeological excavations of the city began in the mid-1920s. A significant part of it was freed from sand and appeared before the amazed gaze of researchers. The unique monuments discovered by archaeologists were included in the UNESCO World Cultural Heritage List.

In 2011, civil war began in Syria. On May 20, 2015, militants of the terrorist organization ISIS took control of the territory of Palmyra. Monuments of art that were not taken away by the retreating government troops were looted, some of them were destroyed.

Bombing of the Temple of Bel on August 30, 2015

On June 27, militants blew up a 3.5-meter statue of the Lion of Allat, which adorned the entrance to the Palmyra Museum. A month later, on August 23, the temple of Baalshamin was destroyed, and a week later, on August 30, the main shrine of the city, the temple of its patron Bel, became a victim of militants. Satellite photographs taken from space confirmed these facts. On September 4, the three best-preserved funerary towers in the Valley of the Tombs adjacent to the city were destroyed. On October 5, vandals blew up the triumphal arch at the beginning of the famous colonnade. The militants also executed the custodian of Palmyra, 82-year-old Khaled al-Asaad, a famous Syrian archaeologist who refused to tell them the location of caches with archaeological treasures.

Pre-war photograph of Palmyra indicating the most important objects
1 – complex of the temple of Bel
2 – triumphal arch
3 – Temple of Baalshamin
4 – theater
5 – agora
6 – tetrapylon
8 – modern city of Palmyra (Tadmor)

On March 13, 2016, the operation to liberate Palmyra began. On March 23, the historical part of the city was cleared of terrorists. On March 25, war correspondent Yevgeny Poddubny sent unique footage from Palmyra, taken by a drone from a bird's eye view. They show what the ruins of the city look like now. This footage was taken by drone operator Alexander Pushin.

The central thoroughfare of Palmyra is the Great Colonnade, running for 1100 m in the direction from the southeast from the gate of the Temple of Bel, to the northwest to the so-called. Tombstone Temple. The width of the street is 11 m, the height of the columns is 9 meters. About halfway along the path there is a small square with a tetrapylon, which in Roman urban architecture marks the intersection of main streets.

At the top of the photo you can see the tetrapylon untouched by the terrorists. In the lower left corner you can see part of the shopping area - the agora. On the right is the theater

The beginning of the large colonnade was decorated with a triumphal arch, built in 129 in honor of the visit of Emperor Hadrian to Palmyra. On October 5, 2015, the arch was blown up by ISIS militants. Its location is visible in the upper right corner of the photo.

On November 3, 2015, Swedish journalists, who secretly visited Palmyra, made a video recording showing the remains of the triumphal arch

This is what the triumphal arch looked like before the war

The most important sanctuary of Palmyra was the temple of the supreme deity, the patron saint of the city of Bela. The temple was one of the oldest buildings in the city; it was rebuilt several times. The temple acquired the form in which it has survived to this day after 32 AD. Externally, it looked like a pseudo-peripterus; the building of the cella of the temple was surrounded by columns along the perimeter; on the short end sides the columns stood in two rows. The trunks of the columns were decorated with statues on consoles, the capitals were covered with gilded bronze.

Contrary to the Greco-Roman tradition, the entrance to the temple was not from the end, but from the longitudinal side, the gate was decorated with a massive portal. The sanctuary stood on a high stepped podium, its walls were made of stone blocks carefully fitted to each other. The temple courtyard, measuring 205x210 m, was surrounded by a fence made of the same blocks. In the Middle Ages, the fence was rebuilt into a fortress with gates, towers and bastions.

Temple of Bel, pre-war photo

A still from a drone video, which clearly shows traces of destruction inside the Bela temple complex

A still from a video published by Swedish journalists, showing the ruins of the Temple of Bel and the preserved portal

This is what the Temple of Bel looked like before the war

Interior of the cella of the Temple of Bel

The Temple of Baalshamin was built in 131. It was a typical Roman temple building. The small cella was preceded by a six-column portico; the column trunks had consoles for statues. The side walls of the temple were decorated with pilasters. In front of the temple there was an altar with dedicatory inscriptions in Greek and Aramaic. The altar was older than the temple.

Temple of Baalshamin, pre-war photo

Bombing of the Temple of Baalshamin on August 23, 2015

The burial towers belonged to noble city families, who buried their family members in them for many generations. The Tower of Iamblichus, which is better preserved than the other tombs, was built in 83 AD. It was a 6-story structure about 20 m high.

Funeral towers, pre-war photograph. In the foreground is the tomb of Iamblichus, blown up by militants on September 4, 2015.

The Islamist movement ISIS continues to wreak havoc in the Middle East. The magnificent ruins of the priceless historical heritage of Ancient Rome in Syria and the Levant are in danger of disappearing.

After destroying the treasures of the last surviving Babylonian cities of Nineveh, Hatra and Nimrud, ISIS is attempting to destroy the architectural monuments of Palmyra in Syria.

Palmyra is an ancient city in Syria with a rich history.

Several reasons why Palmyra is a special historical site included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

1. Palmyra was a major trading center of the Greco-Roman period

For several centuries, the Palmyra fort in Syria served as an important commercial point in the Middle East. The ancient city gained worldwide fame when the Romans reclaimed the area.

A settlement in the middle of the desert, Palmyra had an ideal geographical location. The routes of merchants between the West and Parthia in the East passed through the city.
A huge number of caravans flocked to Palmyra, the markets were filled with a variety of goods: from spices to slaves, incense and ivory. The taxes collected for stopping in the city went towards the development and construction of Palmyra, as a result of which the city became incredibly rich.

2. The ruler of the ancient city of Palmyra was a woman

The ancient city was ruled by a woman for a long time. Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, became the most famous ruler of the Syrian city. Her fame reached Rome. She tried to oppose the powerful empire and expand the sphere of influence of civilization. As a result, the attempts were crowned with failure, but her name was sung for several more centuries.

Even her arch-enemy, the Roman Emperor Aurelian, admitted in the Historia Augusta that the Queen of Palmyra was a worthy opponent.

When Aurelian demanded Xenovia's surrender, she replied that she would prefer to die like her, whom she considered her ancestor.

3. Palmyra: history of the city and attempts to conquer Mark Antony

The people of Palmyra were well aware of the news of Rome and the enemies of the empire - Parthia. Any state could invade the city.

In 41 BC. , being in a relationship with Cleopatra, decided to plunder the richest settlement on earth - Palmyra. He sent cavalry to plunder a city near Euraphatus, located on the border between the Romans and Parthians.

In fact, it is believed that Anthony simply wanted to take revenge on Palmyra, which occupied a neutral position. Anthony dreamed of showing off his booty to his friends. Residents took measures to protect their lives. They transported property across the river and were ready to shoot at the attackers. Many of them were good archers.

As a result, Anthony’s army found nothing in the city and, without meeting a single enemy, returned empty-handed, writes Appian.

Historical value of the ruins of Palmyra

The city's architectural monuments have been perfectly preserved over the centuries. Ruins can tell a lot about the life of the inhabitants of the ancient settlement.

The sculptures of Palmyra are somewhat different in style from those of Rome. The combination of funerary reliefs on stone and fusion with the culture of the Roman Empire led to the creation of especially beautiful bas-reliefs.

Among the wonders of art are Emperor Hadrian's Palmyra, the temple of the goddess Allat, the temple of Baal Shamin and the ruins of buildings where various peoples of the ancient world left historical traces.

The city that rose from the sand

The ancient city will survive a new invasion of barbarians, who more than once sought to wipe it off its face
land. Actually, thanks to the barbarians, Palmyra has survived to this day.

There are many amazing paradoxes in history: for example, Pompeii was preserved by volcanic lava, and Palmyra was preserved by human oblivion. The city was abandoned by people and forgotten for many centuries.

This happened after the city was captured by Arab conquerors in the 7th century, who
expelled the small local population, and founded a fortress on the ruins of ancient temples,
quickly fell into disrepair. Left at the mercy of winds, sands and time, grandiose
the buildings froze lifeless until the 11th century, when a devastating earthquake in 1089
completed the destruction of Palmyra, leaving only a pile of ruins on the outskirts of the oasis.

The remains of the magnificent capital of antiquity were buried under the sands during the frequent
sandstorms, and those buildings that remained on the surface served as construction material
for the huts of local residents. Much of what was of interest from an artistic point of view
was plundered and transported to large cities, and from there to the museums of the world's capitals.
When the Spanish rabbi Benjamin reached Palmyra in the 12th century, he saw only Arab
a village located in the huge courtyard of the temple of the god Bel.

The second discovery of Palmyra took place at the beginning of the 17th century, when the ancient ruins came across
Italian traveler Pietro della Balle. English arrives here around 1692
Pastor Halifax. He was the first to copy the three Palmyran inscriptions, but it was difficult to read the Palmyran
he failed to write the letter.

Only 70 years later did English travelers and scientists reach Palmyra. Robert
Wood (Robert Wood) and James Dawkins (James Dawkins). They compiled the first description of the ruins
Palmyra, made measurements and sketches, which subsequently made a great impression
on contemporaries.

Comparing these drawings with later photographs we can see what was lost and
plundered by the Arabs, and what has been restored in our time.

Thanks to Wood and Dawkins, Palmyra gained fame.
Russian traveler A.A. Rafalovich wrote in his
“Travel notes about Syria and Palestine 1844 - 1847”:
“They (the Bedouins) tell with pride and respect that among their sandy steppes there are
the remains of the great city of Tadmor, erected by the wise Solomon, whom they recognize
for your ancient king."

Bedouin respect, however, did not prevent further looting of the ruins.

In photographs taken in 1880, Palmyra appears somewhat more plucked,
than in the drawings of the 18th century.

After the First World War, Palmyra became one of the most relevant
and attractive problems for archaeologists.

Its architecture and art are a kind of artistic phenomenon in Roman culture
empire, and the monuments and inscriptions discovered as a result of archaeological excavations are priceless
historical documents. It was in Palmyra that peaceful mixing took place for the first time in history.
cultural values ​​of the East with the ideology of the West. As a result of this, a new
a culture striking in its richness and brilliance, which, being neither eastern nor western,
belongs essentially to both of them.

The Palmyra religion, for example, is a conglomerate of various cults of the ancient East mixed with
elements of Western religions, namely Greek and Roman. Bel and Baalshamin, the main deities
Palmyra has much in common with Zeus, and the goddess Allat has much in common with Athena. Figures on Palmyra
sculptures are dressed in oriental, Parthian attire, and their eyes are outlined in the manner of Assyrian
sculptural images. But the composition, and above all the decorative elements, go back to
traditional ornamentation typical of Greek and Roman art.

Reconstruction of the Temple of Bel

Altar of Baalshamin from Palmyra. On the left is the god Malakbel, on the right is Aglibol.

Altar of the god Bel (he sits on the right). Standing: Yaribol, Aglibol and Baalshamin.

Goddess Alatat

Remains of the temple

Partially excavated, partially protruding from the desert sands and gravel, long
colonnades; complex of the sanctuary of Bel, Roman baths, agora, small but well preserved
theater; esplanade of the western part of the city (the so-called Diocletian's camp). It's all surrounded
fairly well-preserved fortress walls.

In Arabic, Palmyra is called Tadmor - this name is most likely pre-Semitic
origin. The first surviving mention of Tadmor, found in cuneiform
Assyrian tiles found at Kul-Tepe in Cappadocia date back to the beginning of the second millennium
BC. In the 18th century BC. e. Tadmor is mentioned on two tablets found in Mari
- an area located on the right bank of the Euphrates, where the French carried out their excavations for many years
under the guidance of prof. A. Parro. The city of Tadmor is also mentioned in the annals of Tiglath-pileser,
dating back to the beginning of the 11th century BC. e. In the biblical Book of Kingdoms, which appeared in the 6th century BC
n. e. where Solomon's construction work is discussed, among various places it is mentioned
also Tamar in the desert; in a similar passage in the Book of Chronicles, dating back to the 3rd century BC
n. e., instead of Tamar the name Tadmor is used.

What is the origin of the name “Palmyra”, found already in the 1st century AD? e.? This is the title
officially used in the Greco-Roman period arose in all likelihood on the basis
false etymology identifying the pre-Semitic word Tadmor with the Semitic word Tamar,
meaning date palm.

Urban-type settlements in this desert oasis undoubtedly existed already in the second century.
millennium BC e., and flint tools and products found in the nearby desert
indicate the presence of settlements in the area dating back to the Stone Age. The batter is here
the somewhat saline Efka spring and sulfurous waters favored the early settlement of the oasis.
The earliest settlements on the territory of Palmyra have not yet been explored by archaeologists,
but starting from the 1st century AD, Palmyra was already a large trading center.

Here the world's first set of customs rules was compiled - so
called the "Palmyra Tariff". The inscription was made in Palmyrene, a mixture of Greek
and Aramaic languages. This code was discovered and deciphered by our compatriot Professor
St. Petersburg University S.S. Abamelek-Lazarev.

Slaves and female slaves from Egypt and Asia Minor were sold here, spices were brought from India and Arabia
and aromatic substances, there was a constant demand for wine, salt, clothing, harness, shoes... High
Purple-dyed wool was also valued: merchants, praising their goods, unanimously asserted that
Compared to Palmyra, other purple fabrics look faded, as if they were sprinkled
ashes.

There was always a multilingual roar under the arches of the Arc de Triomphe, but they called it Triumphal
Europeans. In their minds, arches and gates were always erected to glorify the glorious
military victories or in honor of great commanders. But the Palmyra architects decided in this case
another task: the double gates of the Arc de Triomphe were placed at an angle and, as it were,
they concealed the bend in the street and straightened it.

This monumental gate made of basalt, granite and marble was erected around the year 200.
The huge 20-meter arch rests on double columns, and two small arches at the edges lead
into the side streets. The main commercial thoroughfare of Palmyra was the street of the Great Colonnades,
crossing the city from end to end. Four rows stretched along its entire length (more than 1 km)
17-meter columns, behind which there were residential buildings, warehouses and shops.

Off the street of the Grand Colonnades there was a theater built in the busiest quarter
Palmyra. On the right side it adjoined the Senate building: the theater and the Senate were located on
square area surrounded by porticoes in the Ionic style. The porticos were decorated with statues
Roman and Palmyra commanders, officials and other famous people of the city.

Palmyra, which had long maintained its independence, became a vassal of Rome in the early years of the Empire. On
Palmyra archers began to enter military service in the Roman troops at this time, of which
Since the time of Trajan, separate detachments have been formed. Hadrian personally visited around 129
the city, which at this time was already at the peak of its wealth and splendor. Emperor Hadrian
recognizes the right of Palmyra to be a free city within the Roman Empire, the right of which the city
used until the reign of Septimius Severus.

In 212, during the reign of the Severan dynasty, Palmyra officially became Roman.
province and remained so until 260, when the Persian king Shapur defeated the emperor's legions
Valerian, and he himself was captured. Persian troops approached the very walls of Palmyra,
and then the Romans turned to the Palmyra ruler Odaenathus with a plea for help. And it happened
something that will later evoke the bewildered admiration of chroniclers and historians: Odaenathus, having collected
the best Palmyra archers, defeated the Persian army.

Odaenathus

Having recovered from the defeat, the Persians again opposed the Romans, and again played a decisive role in the defeat
the enemy belonged to the Palmyrans. In gratitude, the Roman emperor appointed Odaenathus vice
Emperor of the East - the second person in the Roman Empire. However, the ruler of Palmyra understood
that any attempt on his part to rise would cause fear and anger in Rome. However, independently
from his will, both Palmyra and he himself acquired increasing influence in the Middle East. AND
the time had indeed come when Rome began to fear its ally. Strip Odaenathus of his title
and the army had nothing to do with it - he remained faithful to the oath, Rome no longer dared to declare him an enemy.
And then Rome resorted, as happens very often, to a tried and tested remedy -
murder. The Roman authorities of the country of Suri in 267 invited Odaenathus to discuss current
business to Emessa and there they killed him along with his eldest son Herodian.

Power in the country passed to his widow, Queen Zinovia (or Zenobia). The Romans were firmly convinced
that Palmyra's troops would refuse to go into battle under the command of a woman. And they greatly miscalculated!
The Palmyran commanders swore allegiance to Zenobia, and the army that went over to her side soon
captured Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and in the north reached the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits.

Zenobia's military victories alarmed Rome, and Emperor Aurelian decided to move against her army.
After the defeat at Emessa, Zenobia decided to sit out in Palmyra, but withstand a long siege
failed. All that remained was to take all the wealth out of the city and retreat beyond the Euphrates, and there
the width of the river and the accuracy of the famous Palmyra archers will save them. But the emperor's cavalry
Aurelian followed on her heels, and near the river Zenobia was captured. In the autumn of 272, i.e.
almost two years after the armed uprising of Zinovia against Rome, Palmyra was taken
troops of Aurelian, who personally led the siege of the city.

"Queen Zinovia's farewell glance at Palmyra." Painting by Herbert Schmaltz.

What was the fate of the educated and ambitious queen, who was also famous for her beauty?
According to ancient sources, Zinovia was taken in chains to Rome - the captive queen must
was to add shine to Aurelian's triumph in the capital of the empire.

An ancient stele with an inscription dedicated to Zinovia.

The siege of Palmyra, and then the secondary capture of the city after an uprising raised by the inhabitants of Palmyra
in 273, led to serious destruction of the city. Zinovia herself for expansion and strengthening
fortifications ordered the dismantling of some tombs and the use of their blocks for strengthening
city ​​walls; Some of the tombs located in the immediate vicinity of Palmyra were destroyed
Aurelian's soldiers standing under the city walls.

In honor of the triumph, Emperor Aurelian ordered the construction of a grandiose palace in the city (reconstruction).

All that remains of the emperor's palace.

The general reconstruction of some quarters and individual buildings of Palmyra began at
at the turn of the 3rd and 4th centuries. under Emperor Diocletian. During the construction of new buildings and partial
During the restoration of old ones, stone blocks and tombstones from necropolises were used at this time
surrounding Palmyra. As we see, the loss of independence, the defeat of the troops of Queen Zinovia and
the capture of the city by Aurelian did not at all become a final disaster for the inhabitants of Palmyra,
nor for the development of urban construction. In Byzantine times, Palmyra, as well as all
The Eastern Empire experiences periods of prosperity and decline. During the reign of Arcadius, about
400, Palmyra again acquired some importance as the seat of the legion, and
150 years later, under Justinian, a partial restoration of the fortress walls was carried out,
built under Zinovia. At the same time, one of the Christian basilicas was built in the city.

After the Romans, the Arabs came here, and the city surrendered without resistance to the troops of Khaled ib-al-Walid,
one of the military leaders of the first caliph Abu Bekr. The inhabitants were expelled. However, they are already
They had not lived in the city for a long time, but gathered outside the walls of the sanctuary of the god Bel, having stuck there many
dark and cramped mud huts. Then the Turks came here for many years, who themselves
they did not want to know anything about the culture of the peoples under their control, and others were not allowed to study it.
No one cared about the brilliant history of the dying city, and numerous earthquakes
completed the destruction of the surviving temples, palaces and colonnades, and the advancing sands of the Syrian
the deserts finally swallowed up the ruins of Palmyra.

Outskirts of Palmyra. Arab buildings are visible.

Arab conquerors, whose culture was completely alien to Roman architecture
Palmyra, adapt city buildings, colonnades and temples for defense and own
utilitarian purposes. For example, under the Seljuks, it was rebuilt into a magnificent citadel
complex of the sanctuary of Bel.

Arabian Palmyra

Russian archaeologist B.V. Farmakovsky, who took part in the restoration of Palmyra, wrote:
“The majestic art monuments of ancient Palmyra have long attracted the attention of scientists
and lovers of beauty. Cut off from the world by a huge arid desert and located
among a forest of palm trees in a distant, luxurious oasis, the ruins of Palmyra... have always excited
imagination, always seemed to be something fabulously magnificent... Ancient Palmyra was one
of the outstanding cultural centers in the East. And here was a society whose art
was the most essential need of life, which loved and worshiped its creators.”

Palmyra at dawn

After members of the Islamic State terrorist group, known for their
barbaric attitude towards objects of culture and art, entered Palmyra, a representative
UNESCO said hundreds of valuable statues were safely evacuated to safety.
However, scientists are very concerned about the fate of museums, massive sarcophagi
and large sculptures that cannot be taken out..

Palmyra is an ancient city in Central Syria, in an oasis of the Syrian Desert, near the modern settlement of Tadmor (Tadmur, Tudmura). Palmyra (City of Palms) is a Greek and Latin name. The Arabs called it Tadmor even earlier, when there was a village here, which was a large stop for caravans crossing the Syrian Desert, for which it received the nickname “bride of the desert.”

City `s history

Palmyra was first mentioned in the 19th century. BC e. like Tadmor in the royal archive of Mari - a city-state on the banks of a river in Northern Syria in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e. In an inscription from 1100 BC. e., dating back to the era of the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser I (reigned 1115-1076 BC), it is called Tadmar. In the Old Testament, the city is mentioned under the name Tadmor (3 Kings 9, 18; 2 Chronicles 8.4) - as the easternmost city of the Jewish king Solomon (reigned 965-928 BC): “And he built Tadmor in a desert…"
Biblical texts claim that Palmyra was founded in the 10th century. BC e. it was King Solomon who needed a fortified point to protect himself from the Arameans. Subsequently, the city was destroyed by the king of the New Babylonian kingdom, Nebuchadnezzar II (about 634-562 BC) during a campaign against Jerusalem.
However, the city rose from the ashes and managed to reach its greatest prosperity in the 3rd-1st centuries. BC e. Palmyra owes its rise and rather long existence to its advantageous location on the trade routes connecting East and West, between the Mediterranean Sea in the west and the Asian Euphrates River in the east.
The largest warehouses of goods in the Middle East were located here.
Before the arrival of the Romans, Palmyra was a self-governing city. The city submitted to the Romans under Emperor Tiberius (42 BC - 37 AD). In 129, Emperor Hadrian (76-138) visited Palmyra and declared it a civitas libera (free city). Later, Emperor Caracalla (188-217) made Palmyra a colony of Rome, but at the same time exempted it from taxes: income from Rome’s trade through Palmyra with Mesopotamia, Scythia, Central Asia and South Arabia more than covered possible tax revenues. It was at this time that magnificent buildings were completed in Palmyra: palaces, roads, colonnades.
Difficulties for Palmyra began in the 3rd century, when the Sassanid state (on the territory of modern Iraq and Iran) defeated the Parthian kingdom (the southern coast of the Caspian Sea). In 227, the Sassanids blocked the trade route to the Persian Gulf, and Palmyra's prosperity ended. The Romans tried to resist the pressure of the Sassanids and established personal rule in Palmyra by the family of Lucius Septimius Odaenathus, which lasted from 260 to 267.
In 267, Odaenathus was killed by order of Zenobia (240 - after 274), his second wife, who wanted to make her son heir. In fact, Zenobia herself ruled Palmyra on behalf of her young son. The Romans refused to recognize her rule, and Zenobia declared independence from Rome. She discovered the talent of a commander: in a short time she conquered Syria, the eastern part of Asia Minor and Egypt.
Having gathered a large army, the Roman emperor Aurelian (214-275) defeated Zenobia's troops in the battles of Antioch and Emesa. The Romans destroyed captured Palmyra without sparing any of the inhabitants. In 274, during Aurelian's triumphal procession through Rome, Zenobia was paraded through the city in gold chains. She subsequently died in exile, albeit a comfortable one: on the estate of Tibur (now Tivoli) near Rome.
During the reign of Queen Zenobia, Palmyra became the capital of an independent state that included Syria, Asia Minor and Egypt. The architectural ensembles of the capital city were distinguished by their impressive scale and were luxuriously decorated with many sculptures. Excavations of Palmyra have been ongoing since 1900; part of the ruins of an ancient city with a regular layout and streets framed by grandiose Corinthian colonnades has been uncovered.
After the Romans dealt with Palmyra, it was unable to regain its former power. For some time it remained a village on the Strata Diocletiana - a network of Roman fortifications, one of the points on the paved road between Damascus and the Euphrates. In 634, Palmyra was destroyed almost to the ground by the Arabs, and the subsequent earthquake only completed the picture of final destruction.
Palmyra's position between East and West was reflected in the mixture of cultures. For example, the robes on the Palmyra sculptures are oriental, and their eyes are outlined in accordance with Assyrian traditions. At the same time, decorative elements correspond to the traditions of Greek and Roman ornament. In ancient Palmyra, they spoke Aramaic and used two types of writing: monumental (hieroglyphic writing for inscriptions on walls and columns) and cursive (handwritten Mesopotamian writing). In 1881, the Russian prince, traveler and orientalist Semyon Abamelek-Lazarev (1857-1916) discovered the so-called “Palmyra duty tariff”: a marble slab with an inscription in Greek and Aramaic (250 lines), containing a customs tariff of 137 g. n. e., which then played a major role in the study of the Aramaic language. With the permission of local authorities, Lazarev took it to Russia, and today it is in St. Petersburg, in the Hermitage.
Excavations at Palmyra have revealed the ancient layout of the city. Palmyra is one of the few surviving ancient urban complexes. Archaeologists called the main decumanus, 1100 m long and 11 m wide, stretching from east to west, the Great Colonnade: initially it consisted of 1500 columns.
Corinthian colonnade of the 2nd century. with a three-span triumphal arch dating back to the beginning of the 3rd century, it connected two centers: a cult center (with the Temple of Bel) in the east and a trade center (with a market square) in the west. The market square was surrounded by columns on which busts of noble citizens were installed: in the northern part - military leaders, in the southern - officials, in the western - merchants, in the eastern - senators.
To the south of the colonnade were the agora (meeting area) and the Senate building. A special place is occupied by the so-called “Diocletian’s camp” of the late 3rd - early 4th centuries, surrounded by high walls, with the Temple of the Banner.
The most significant temple complex was built in honor of the god Bel (probably one of the images of Baal), whom the inhabitants of Palmyra worshiped as the god of the sky. The complex was completed by 32 and included a courtyard surrounded by a wall with colonnades, ritual pools, an altar and the temple itself, which harmoniously combined the severity of Roman architecture with oriental pomp and scale. During the excavations, several ancient Christian churches were also discovered.
In the center of Palmyra there was a theater - built in the 2nd century. - and luxurious baths. In the necropolis of Palmyra, tower tombs with a height of up to 20 m and higher, found nowhere else in the Middle East, were preserved, which were family tombs with a massive base, a decorative portal and a small balcony. There are also underground rock crypts - hypogea. The tombs and hypogea are richly decorated with paintings and sculptures.
Archaeologists recently discovered how this city with a population of 200 thousand people survived in the middle of a lifeless desert. A network of canals and artificial reservoirs was discovered, where rainwater was collected during rare seasonal thunderstorms, which gave only 120-150 mm of precipitation per year.

general information

An ancient city in the Middle East.
Administrative affiliation: Syrian Arab Republic.

Capital of the Palmyra Kingdom(now the settlement of Tadmor).
Language: Aramaic (now Arabic).
Ethnic composition: Arameans (now Arabs).

Religion: pagan - worship of the god Bel (Baal), now - Islam.

Currency unit: Syrian pound.

Numbers

Climate and weather

Average January temperature:+8°C.

Average temperature in July:+32°С.
Average annual precipitation: about 100 mm.

Relative humidity: 60%.

Economy

Traditional crafts: weaving, metal products.
Services: tourism, transport, hotels.

Attractions

Architectural

Temple of Bel (32)

Tower of Iamblichus (late 1st century)

Main street - decumanus (Great Colonnade)

Agora (meeting square)

Temple of Baalshamin (131)

Theater (2nd century)

Senate building

“Diocletian’s Camp” (late 3rd - early 4th centuries) with the Znamen Temple

Tetrapylon (crossroads)

Necropolis (Valley of the Tombs - tower tombs and underground rock crypts - hypogea)

Water supply and sewerage

Canals and artificial reservoirs

Remains of public buildings and temples

Historical

Arab fortress Qalaat al-Maani (first half of the 17th century)

Cultural

The ceramic water and sewer pipes of Palmyra are partially preserved in good condition and are quite suitable for use.

According to one of the ancient Arabic legends, Palmyra was created by genies on the orders of King Solomon himself.

From the middle of the 2nd century. In Palmyra, underground crypts - hypogea - were built. The most famous is the Crypt of the Three Brothers, built by the brothers Naaman, Male and Saedi. The crypt was designed for 390 burials and, despite the fact that the tombs were built for themselves, it was a commercial enterprise: the brothers sold places in the tomb to other families.

Decoding the “Palmyra Duty Tariff” allowed scientists to clarify the geography of connections between the inhabitants of Palmyra, who traded with the Persians, Phoenicians, Egyptians and even Indians.

Statues, reliefs, mosaics and paintings of Palmyra are kept in the National Museum (Damascus, Syria).

The name Palmyra is given to cities in the USA (in the states of Illinois, Indiana, Maine, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Utah, Virginia, Wisconsin), an atoll in the Pacific Ocean under the jurisdiction of the USA, a city in Australia, a village in Ukraine and city ​​in the province of Guanacaste, Costa Rica.

Northern Palmyra is the poetic name of St. Petersburg, found in Russian fiction. Invented by court flatterers who compared Catherine II the Great (1729-1796) with Zenobia, and the capital of Russia with Palmyra, famous for its wealth, splendor and beauty of architecture. There is an assumption that the author of the expression is the writer and publisher Thaddeus Bulgarin (1789-1859): this expression was often found on the pages of his newspaper “Northern Bee,” which he published since 1825.

Palmyra is also the name given to the fan-leaved palm of tropical Asia and a typeface for small typographic works.