Economic and geographical characteristics of Iceland. Iceland is

Short description

If there is a country in the world where even simple fishermen live like kings, then this is, of course, Iceland. The small island, lost in the icy waters of the North Atlantic, is covered with permafrost and volcanoes, but this did not stop the Icelanders from becoming the “best” in several areas at once. Iceland has the world's highest standard of living, highest per capita income, highest education rates and lowest crime rate. However, this is not surprising: there is simply nothing to take on the island except snow, frozen lava and salmon. But there is something to see: the Vatna and Braidamerkur glaciers sparkling in the dim northern sun, countless geysers, from which Icelanders use boiling water to heat their houses, the majestic Goudafoss and Dehtifoss waterfalls and, of course, Hekla - one of the most restless volcanoes in the world.

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Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Faculty of Natural Geography

Department of Economic and Social Geography

Test

on economic and social geography of foreign countries “Economic and geographical characteristics of the Republic of Iceland”

Performed

5th year student

Sheveleva Yulia

Alexandrovna

From time to time, Hekla wakes up, and then tons of lava and volcanic ash fall on the houses of peacefully dozing fishermen, and their more fortunate neighbors from the surrounding villages go out to admire the volcanic eruption - the most formidable and most beautiful natural phenomenon in the world. However, the Icelanders are not discouraged: when the Hekla eruption ends, they walk through the phantasmagoric fields of solidified lava during the long polar nights, cook fresh fish for tourists right in the geysers and geothermal lakes, and children launch tin boats right in the puddles of hot lava and watch with delight, how the toy melts in a matter of seconds.

In Iceland, New Year's Eve is celebrated from noon on December 31st, and the most important thing is that there is as much lighting as possible. Icelanders light bonfires, sing and dance around them. Here and there, costumed “trolls” and “elves” flash by. The closer to midnight, the hotter the festivities.

Fireworks can also be heard everywhere. There are so many of them and they are so bright that in 2005 even all children aged 10 to 15 were given an unusual gift from public associations: special glasses that protect their eyes from fireworks sparks.

Before Christmas, Christmas markets and sales begin in Iceland, where people come not only to choose gifts, decorations for the tree and indoors, but also to have fun. In the larger cities of Iceland these markets close after Christmas, but in some small outlying regions the Christmas market continues until Epiphany and ends with large night festivities from 5th to 6th January.

So, the Republic of Iceland, a state in northern Europe. Located on the island of the same name, the second largest in Europe. The northern point reaches the Arctic Circle. Area 103 thousand sq. km. Population approx. 270 thousand people. The capital is the city of Reykjavik (105.5 thousand people).

The name “Iceland” (“ice country”) was given by the Norwegian Viking Flowki, one of the first to visit this island. Climbing one of the mountains on the northern coast, he saw icebergs in the fjord and upon returning to Norway began to call the new country “ice”. Icebergs are actually quite rare in Icelandic waters, and although the country has large glaciers, its name is more appropriate for neighboring Greenland.

Geologically, Iceland is a young country, formed as a result of volcanic eruptions over the past 60 million years (corresponding to the Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary periods in the history of the Earth). The most ancient parts of the country are located in the west, north and east. These are mainly plateaus composed of ancient basaltic lavas. The plateau-like nature of the surface is best preserved in the north-west, while in the east and north of the central part of the island the relief takes on an alpine appearance. A vast zone extends across the entire country from north to southwest, mainly composed of palagonite tuffs and breccias, which were formed as a result of underwater volcanic eruptions.

A large number of volcanoes are confined to this zone, as well as to the Snæfellsnes region in the west, of which 20 erupted after the settlement of the country. Iceland has almost every type of volcano found on Earth. The most characteristic are chains of craters resulting from eruptions along cracks and faults. In 1783, during the eruption of a volcano of this type, Laki, located southwest of Vatnajökull, the largest lava flow observed on Earth in historical times was formed. It covered an area of 570 square meters. km. To the southwest of Vatnajökull is the Hekla volcano, which erupted in 1947 and 1970. As a result of an underwater eruption off the southwestern coast of Iceland in 1963, the small island of Surtsey emerged. In 1973, during a volcanic eruption on the island of Heimaey, the population of the city of Vestmannaeyjar had to be evacuated.

Hot springs scattered throughout the country (there are more than 250 of them) are closely related to volcanic activity. Fields of sulfur fumaroles (solfatars) are confined to areas of young volcanism. Of the gushing springs, the most famous is the Great Geyser, the name of which has become a household name for all such formations. Iceland widely uses thermal energy. 85% of the population lives in houses heated by their waters. In addition, warm water is supplied to numerous greenhouses and swimming pools.

Iceland's coastline is approx. 5 thousand km. In the northwest, north and east, the rocky shores are dissected by numerous bays, fjords and islands. The inner parts of many fjords are lined with hook-shaped pebble spits, which protect natural harbors from storms blowing from the Atlantic Ocean. Coastal cities and towns are often located on such spits. The southwestern and southern shores of Iceland are sandy and level; There are no natural harbors there.

Ice caps and other glaciers cover an area of 11,900 square meters. km. The largest of the ice caps, Vatnajökull with an area of 8300 square meters. km, located in southeast Iceland. The highest point of the country, Hvannadalshnukur, is also located here, which is the raised edge of the caldera of the Éraivajökull volcano. Other major ice caps are Hofsjökull and Langjökull in the interior of the island, and Eyjafjallajökull and Mýrdalsjökull in the south (covering active volcanoes).

Thanks to the abundance of rainfall, Iceland has many fairly large rivers, but they are not navigable. South of Vatnajökull, the rivers branch into branches that often change their position. This is a serious obstacle to transport. During subglacial volcanic eruptions and when ice dams break on subglacial lakes, huge masses of meltwater cause violent floods on rivers. The largest lakes in Iceland are Thingvallavatn and Thorisvatn.

Despite its name and the presence of glaciers, Iceland is by no means an Arctic country. The warm waters of the North Atlantic Current (a continuation of the Gulf Stream), a branch of which runs along the southern and western coasts of the island, have a softening effect on its climate. The average annual temperature on the southwest coast in Reykjavik is 4° C, the average January temperature is –1° C, July is 11° C. The corresponding indicators on the northern coast in Akureyri are 3° C, –2° C and 11° C. Coastal waters are free from ice throughout the year. The exception is situations related to the removal of polar ice in the north and east. Due to the significant improvement in climate since the early 1920s, the removal of polar ice to the shores of Iceland occurred only once in 1965. The weather in this country changes dramatically, sometimes within 24 hours, depending on the passage of cyclones eastward across the Atlantic Ocean. Average annual precipitation is 1300–2000 mm on the southern coast, 500–750 mm on the northern coast and over 3800 mm on the south-facing slopes of Vatnajökull and Mýrdalsjökull.

The soils of Iceland are partly mineral, loess type, partly marshy, enriched with mineral material derived from volcanic ash, and partly aeolian, silty and sandy. Less than 1/4 of the country's territory is covered with vegetation (versus 2/3 when the country was settled 1,100 years ago). The vast interior plateaus are almost entirely devoid of vegetation. The vegetation is dominated by mosses and grasses. Until recently, woody plants occupied only 1% of the area. These are mainly birch trees, which usually have twisted trunks due to strong winds. In recent years, significant coniferous plantations have been created in some places.

The species composition of Iceland's fauna is poor. At the time the country was settled, there was only one species of land mammal - the arctic fox. At the end of the 18th century. reindeer were introduced. In addition, mice, rats and mink were accidentally introduced to the island. Breeds in Iceland approx. 80 species of birds. Mountain lakes and rivers are home to many swans, ducks and geese, and on the sea coast gulls, terns, etc. are common. Trout lives in the lakes, and salmon lives in the rivers. Two species of seals and some species of whales are found in coastal waters. Here are feeding and spawning areas for fish (up to 66 species). The most important are cod, sea bass, haddock, halibut and shrimp.

From the time of initial settlement, immigration was limited until the mid-20th century. the majority of the population lived on isolated farms. Iceland's history has repeatedly seen periods of massive population decline due to epidemics, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Around 1100, Iceland's population was 0.1–0.2% of Europe's population, versus 0.03% today. In the 20th century There is a constant population growth of 1.5% per year. There has also been a migration of rural populations to Reykjavik and other cities and suburbs in the southwest of the country. Currently approx. 95% of the population lives in cities and towns with more than 200 inhabitants, 40% of the population is concentrated in Reykjavik. As a rule, in the northwest, north and northeast, settlements are confined to a narrow coastal strip and river valleys. About 20% of the country's territory is uninhabited.

Approximately 90% of the population belongs to the Evangelical Lutheran Church. The rest are dominated by Seventh-day Adventists and Catholics.

Icelanders are one of the most homogeneous peoples in the world. They are predominantly of Scandinavian origin. These are the descendants of the brave Vikings who moved from Norway to Iceland in the early Middle Ages. The descendants of the Celts who migrated from Ireland and Scotland are also represented. Icelandic belongs to the Germanic language family and is closely related to Old English. It has changed little since the original settlement: it is in fact an Old Norse language spoken over a thousand years ago. In Norway itself, the language has since changed greatly and been simplified, and has also been influenced by Danish and other European languages. The Icelandic language has changed so little that modern Icelanders can easily read the original texts of the ancient sagas.

Iceland's largest city, Reykjavik, is the seat of government and parliament, as well as the financial, commercial and cultural center of the country. The second largest city is Kopavogur (17.7 thousand inhabitants in 1996) near Reykjavik, the third is Akureyri (15.2 thousand inhabitants), a fishing and trading center on the northern coast. Other relatively large cities are Hafnarfjörður, Västmannaeyjar, Siglufjörður, Ísafjörður, Akranes and Keflavík. With the exception of Selfoss and Hveragerdi (the latter is known as the center of the greenhouse economy based on the use of thermal spring waters), all significant settlements in Iceland are located on the sea coast.

The country's self-employed population is employed in management, education and healthcare (33%), in fishing and the fish processing industry (12%), in the financial and business sectors (9%) and construction (7%).

The political system of the Republic of Iceland is determined by the constitution adopted in 1920. Changes were made to it after the abolition of the union with Denmark and the declaration of Icelandic independence in 1944. Significant additions were introduced in 1991.

The head of state is the president, who personifies the highest executive power. He is directly elected for a four-year term. Candidates for this post may be Icelandic citizens over 35 years of age. The power of the president is limited and largely formal. In this respect, the President of Iceland is likened to the Scandinavian monarchs or the President of France during the Third and Fourth Republics. The presidential residence is Bessastadir, an ancient estate near Reykjavik.

The government of Iceland is a cabinet of ministers headed by a prime minister. It is responsible to parliament - the Althing, but ministers are appointed by the president, who also accepts their resignation. Usually the government consists of representatives of two or more parties.

Legislative power belongs to the Althing, consisting of 63 deputies who are elected on the basis of proportional representation. There are 8 constituencies from which 5 to 12 deputies are elected. In addition to these, 11 parliamentary seats are elected at the national level on the basis of proportional representation.

Until 1991, the Althing had two chambers - an upper and a lower one. Currently there is only one ward.

Additions and amendments to the constitution are carried out through parliament. After their adoption, the Althing is dissolved and new elections are called; If the proposed changes are adopted by the new Althing, they acquire the status of law after approval by the President.

Geographical location of Iceland.
Climate and nature of Iceland.

ICELAND, Republic of Iceland (Lyveldi Island), a state in Europe, on the island of the same name in the north Atlantic Ocean. Area approx. 103 thousand km2. Population 292.8 thousand people (2004). The capital is Reykjavik. Apart from Reykjavik, there are no major cities in Iceland. The most significant are Kopavogur, Akureyri, Hafnarfjörður, Gyvünes.

In the north, Iceland is washed by the Greenland Sea, in the east by the Norwegian Sea, and in the northwest the Denmark Strait separates it from Greenland. The island of Iceland was formed relatively recently as a result of volcanic activity that has not subsided to this day. Most of it is occupied by volcanic plateaus, in some places covered with ice (height 400-800 m), above which rise mountain ranges with numerous volcanoes (about 200 in total). The most famous Icelandic volcanoes are Hekla, Laki, Askja, Hvannadalshnukur (the highest point in Iceland, 2119 m). Characterized by numerous hot springs and geysers, frequent earthquakes.

More than 1/10 of Iceland's area is covered with ice. From the large glaciers - Vatnajökull, Langjökull, Hofsjökull - rapid rivers rich in hydropower resources originate. Large lakes - Thingvallavatn, Mývatn.

The climate of Iceland is subarctic, maritime. Rain and fog are very frequent. Temperature in winter approx. 0 °C, in summer - 10-11 °C. The vegetation is very sparse; almost the entire territory is rocky areas covered with mosses and lichens or peat bogs. Significant areas are completely devoid of vegetation: these are young lava fields and glaciers.

To protect unique landscapes, numerous national parks (Thingvellir, Mývatn og Lachsau, Skaftafell, Jökulsargljuvür) and reserves have been created.

There are no minerals or raw materials in Iceland.

State structure of Iceland.

The head of state is the president. The legislative body is the parliament (the Althing, the oldest parliament in Europe, from the 10th century).

Administrative and governmental structure of Iceland.

23 sysla.

Population of Iceland.

The national composition is homogeneous: more than 99% of the population are Icelanders; the rest are Danes and Swedes. The official language is Icelandic. Most believers are Lutherans. OK. 92% of the population lives in cities, of which approx. 60% - in the metropolitan agglomeration. Population density 2.7 people/km2.

Economy of Iceland.
Industry and economy of Iceland.

Iceland is a country with an exceptionally high standard of living. GNP per capita $24,950 (1995). The basis of Iceland's economy is fishing (mainly cod, perch, haddock, herring, halibut) and fish processing. Fish and seafood account for 73.3% of export value (1996). Fish processing centers are Reykjavik, Siglufjordur, Akureyri, Vestmannaeyjar.

Iceland has a powerful potential for cheap hydro and geoenergy resources. St. over 93% of electricity is produced at hydroelectric power stations, St. 6% – on geothermal power plants. In terms of electricity consumption per capita, the country occupies one of the leading places in the world, and in terms of its production per capita, it ranks 2nd in Western Europe after Norway. Hot springs are widely used for heating residential buildings and greenhouses (year-round cultivation of vegetables and berries is established). Large sources of cheap electricity have built aluminum factories for export. Shipbuilding and ship repair are developed.

The main branch of agriculture is highly productive sheep breeding. The famous Icelandic wool and woolen knitwear are an important export. Traditional crafts are preserved - collecting eider down, catching seals.
The currency is the Icelandic krona.

History of Iceland.

The settlement of Iceland began in the 9th century. The first settlers called Iceland "the land of ice." Most of the colonists were Vikings - immigrants from Norway.

In 1262-64 Iceland was under the rule of Norway, together with which in 1397 it came under the rule of Denmark. However, Iceland has always enjoyed fairly broad self-government.

In 1918 the Danish-Icelandic union was concluded. In 1940, during the Second World War, British troops landed in Iceland, and in 1941, American troops. In 1944, the Danish-Icelandic union was dissolved and Iceland became an independent state. In 1958, conflicts between Iceland and Great Britain, Germany, and others repeatedly arose in connection with the violation of the fishing zone (the so-called “cod wars”).

Iceland belongs to the 13 “small” countries of Western Europe (Austria, Belgium, Greece, Denmark, Ireland, Iceland, Luxenburg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Finland, Switzerland, Sweden). Iceland's share in the world economy is small, but taken together with other “small” countries, it represents a powerful force.

Iceland is located close to both Europe and the USA and Canada. This allows for active foreign trade by sea. The economy is based on the fishing industry. Iceland is rich in geothermal energy sources, the use of which is profitable and environmentally cost-effective. Cheap geothermal energy attracts investors to invest in energy-intensive industries. Thus, the main plant in Iceland is an aluminum plant that uses imported raw materials. Iceland is not rich in mineral resources. The rather harsh climate is not conducive to the active development of agriculture, but Iceland provides its domestic market with agricultural products.

Iceland plans to switch to hydrogen fuel as the most acceptable option both environmentally and economically. This opens up broad prospects for the country.

The unusual nature contributes to the development of tourism.

The area of Iceland is 103 thousand square kilometers .

In the North Atlantic Ocean there is an island of the same name, on which the country of Iceland is located. Along the northern part Iceland is washed The Greenland Sea, on the eastern part the Norwegian Sea and separates Iceland from Greenland by the Denmark Strait in the northwest.

Most of the entire island is occupied mainly by plateaus; on average, their height reaches about 400-800 meters. Above them rise mountain ranges, the height of which reaches up to 1500 meters.

There are also quite a few volcanoes there. There are 200 volcanoes concentrated in Iceland. There are about 30 active of them, they can pose a threat to residents. The most famous Icelandic volcanoes are: Hekla, Laki, Askja, Hvannadalshnukur. Iceland also has many geysers and hot springs.

The climatic conditions of Iceland are manifested mainly in constant fog and frequent heavy rains, this is due to the fact that the climate there is subtropical, maritime. The country is warm in winter, with temperatures as low as 0°C. But the summer there is not so warm, the average temperature reaches 10-11°C.

Coastal waters are ice-free throughout the year. The exception is situations related to the removal of polar ice in the north and east. Due to the significant improvement in climate since the early 1920s, the removal of polar ice to the shores of Iceland occurred only once, in 1965. (source)

The name of the country was given a very long time ago, and it was named so because 1/10 of its territory is covered with ice, and most of the territory is covered with rocks, which means that vegetation is not very well developed in Iceland.

In general, this is an amazing country, with a vast amount of territory occupied by eternal ice and hot springs located not far from them.

Video about Iceland:

Geographical location of Iceland

Iceland is an island country located in the North Atlantic Ocean, near the Arctic Circle. The country lies between Norway and Greenland. Almost the entire territory of the country is a volcanic plateau with peaks up to 2 km. which drop steeply to the ocean and form a huge number of fjords.
Iceland has many active volcanoes: Hekla, Askja, Laki, etc. There are also geysers, hot springs, glaciers and lava fields that cover almost the entire territory of the island.
The total area of the country is about 103 thousand square meters. km. of which 11.8 thousand sq. km. covered with glaciers.
The capital of the country is the city of Reykjavik.

Iceland is the second largest island in Europe. In the north the country is washed by the Greenland Sea, in the east by the Norwegian Sea. In the west, the Denmark Strait separates Iceland from Greenland. The northernmost point of the country is located in the Arctic Circle. The length of the island from north to south is 306 km, from west to east - 480 km. In summer there are white nights here, and in December the sun appears only for 3-4 hours.

The highest point in the country is Hvannadalshnukur, its height is 2119 meters above sea level.

The total area of glaciers is 11.8 thousand square meters. km. The largest cover glacier is Vatnajökull, which is located in the southeast of the island.

Iceland has many rivers, but they are not navigable. The longest of them are: Tjorsar, Jökulsa a Fjodlum, Jölvüsaa and Skjalvandafljöt. The largest lakes in the country are Thingvallavatn and Thorisvatn.

Geography of Iceland. Map, geographical location, population, climate of Iceland.
Industry and economy of Iceland, resources, symbols and anthem of Iceland.

Geographical location of Iceland.
Climate and nature of Iceland.

ICELAND, Republic of Iceland (Lyveldi Island). a state in Europe, on the island of the same name in the north Atlantic Ocean. Area approx. 103 thousand km2. Population 292.8 thousand people (2004). The capital is Reykjavik. Apart from Reykjavik, there are no major cities in Iceland. The most significant are Kopavogur, Akureyri, Hafnarfjörður, Gyvünes.

To protect unique landscapes, numerous national parks (Thingvellir, Mývatn og Lachsau, Skaftafell, Jökulsargljuvür) and reserves have been created.

There are no minerals or raw materials in Iceland.

State structure of Iceland.

The head of state is the president. The legislative body is the parliament (the Althing, the oldest parliament in Europe, from the 10th century).

Administrative and governmental structure of Iceland.

Population of Iceland.

Economy of Iceland.
Industry and economy of Iceland.

History of Iceland.

The settlement of Iceland began in the 9th century. The first settlers called Iceland "the land of ice." Most of the colonists were Vikings - immigrants from Norway.

In 1262-64 Iceland was under the rule of Norway, together with which in 1397 it came under the rule of Denmark. However, Iceland has always enjoyed fairly broad self-government.

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Physical geography of continents and oceans

EURASIA: ARCTIC AND SUBARCTIC

Geographical position. The island of Iceland is located in the North Atlantic Ocean, between the Arctic Circle and 63°20′ N latitude. significantly southwest of Spitsbergen (see the map of the physical-geographical zoning of Eurasia with links to photographs of the nature of this region). The area of Iceland is 103 thousand km 2. Together with the small islands located off its coast, Iceland is a state called the Republic of Iceland.

The nature of Iceland is exceptionally distinctive due to the combination of intense volcanic activity with modern glaciation and a damp, cold maritime climate. Iceland is often called the land of ice and fire, but it could also be called the land of wind, rain and fog.

Geological structure. Iceland is an island that arose where the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, separating the Eurasian and North American lithospheric plates, rises above the ocean surface and where oceanic rift volcanism takes place, usually manifesting itself under the thickness of ocean waters, at great depths.

Iceland has no genetic connection with the mainland; its formation is associated with the formation of the North Atlantic Ocean. Therefore, considering it as a physical-geographical region of Eurasia can be considered conditional. The Icelandic Republic is traditionally classified as a Nordic country due to the origin and linguistic background of its population.

The base of the island consists of strata of dark-colored basaltic lavas, which were uplifted and fractured in the Neogene, and new eruptions of volcanic products occurred along the cracks, mainly from acidic lavas, ash and breccias. Iceland is still one of the most tectonically active areas of the Earth with all sorts of manifestations of volcanic activity: eruptions, releases of hot water and gases, and even the formation of new volcanoes. Modern volcanism is associated with a central fault zone that crosses the island and is part of the rift zone of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Fig. 27). Seismic activity affects regularly occurring earthquakes of varying strength. The last major earthquake, measuring 6.5 on the Richter scale, occurred in Iceland in June 2000 and caused significant destruction.

Rice. 27. Volcanism in Iceland

Relief and volcanism. The island's topography is predominantly elevated. Lowlands occupy less than 1/5 of its surface, all of them concentrated in the west and southwest. Most of the island is a basalt plateau with heights of 400-600 m, which almost everywhere drops steeply towards the sea. The coastline is very dissected, especially in the north and northwest, where many fjords cut into the coast. The most powerful massifs in Iceland are Vatnajökull and nearby Eraivajökull, on which the highest peak in Iceland is located - the Hvannadalshnukur volcano (2119m). Not far from the southern coast there is the Mýrdalsjökull massif (1480 m), in the central part of the island there is the Hofsjökull massif (1700 m), etc. The peaks of the massifs form active or extinct volcanoes. In the southwestern part of the island, the most active volcano in Iceland, Hekla, rises, reaching a height of 1491 m.

In total, there are over 150 in Iceland volcanoes. Of these, about 40 are active. Volcanic eruptions occur constantly. At the same time, fields and pastures are flooded with lava flows and covered with ash; Poisonous gases poison the atmosphere for many kilometers around. During the most powerful eruptions, winds carry volcanic ash to the coasts of Scandinavia and Scotland. Volcanism manifests itself both on the island itself and in the ocean. In the early 1960s. In the open ocean near the southern coast of Iceland, an underwater eruption began, as a result of which a new island appeared, named Surtsey, and in 1973, a crack formed on one of the islands near Iceland, along which 10 active craters appeared. Hot springs and geysers are also associated with volcanic activity. The latter were first studied here and took their name from Iceland's largest gushing hot spring, the Great Geysir. Hot volcanic waters are used to heat homes, greenhouses and greenhouses, where Icelanders grow tomatoes, cucumbers, apples and even bananas. Dozens of swimming pools have been built at hot springs in the country.

Glaciers. The high massifs of Iceland are covered with glaciers. Glacial tongues descend from the vast firn fields, in some places reaching almost to the sea. The height of the snow line varies in different parts of the island. In the north-west it drops to 400 m above sea level, and in the driest places in the north-east and center it rises to 1600 m. The total area of modern glaciation in Iceland is about 12,000 km 2. Of which about 8,500 km 2 is in the huge glacier of the Vatnajökull massif. Around the glaciers, accumulations of moraine sediments formed, as well as vast expanses of outwash sand.

The combination of modern glaciation and modern volcanism leads to peculiar and often dangerous natural phenomena - subglacial eruptions. When subglacial volcanoes explode, a large amount of heat is released, which is accompanied by rapid melting of the ice. Huge mud flows rush to the sea, carrying with them blocks of ice and rock fragments.

Climatic conditions. Iceland's island position in the center of the winter pressure depression of the Atlantic Ocean determines the characteristics of its climate. A branch of the warm North Atlantic Current - the Irminger Current - passes directly off the southern coast of the island. It warms the southern and western parts of Iceland, creating significant positive winter temperature anomalies there. A branch of the cold Greenland Current approaches Iceland from the north, bringing floating ice to the shores of the island. Where warm and cold currents converge, the weather can be very unstable, with frequent storms and fog.

The influence of warm currents is especially strong in winter. Therefore, the average temperature of the coldest month in the southern and southwestern parts of the island is positive or slightly below 0 °C (from 2 to -3 °C). In the interior parts of the island in the north and at high altitudes, winters are much colder and the average January temperature ranges from -5 to -15 °C. The average summer temperature on the island does not exceed 7.12 °C. Precipitation is especially abundant in the south and southwest, where its annual amounts reach 1000 mm, and on the slopes of high massifs it reaches 3000 mm. In the interior parts of the island, the amount of precipitation decreases to 300-500 mm, however, at low temperatures, even here excess moisture is created (Fig. 28). At all times of the year, precipitation can fall in the form of rain and snow, but prolonged snow cover occurs only on the high mountains, as well as in the interior and northern regions of the island.

Rice. 28. Annual variation of temperatures and precipitation in southwest Iceland

Since Iceland is in the path of cyclones, its weather is characterized by great instability throughout the year and strong winds of different and often changing directions. Stormy weather with heavy fog can cause shipwrecks off the coast of Iceland.

Natural waters. The abundance of moisture gives rise to many rivers, lakes and swamps. The rivers are short (Tjoursau - 287 km, Khvitau - 183 km), stormy and rapids. When crossing the ledges of basalt plateaus, some of them form waterfalls up to 50 m high. Rivers starting from glaciers are characterized by sharp fluctuations in water content and rapid summer floods. Where groundwater plays the main role in feeding rivers, the flow is more uniform. Rivers are an important source of energy for Iceland, the importance of which is especially great given the complete absence of mineral fuel reserves in the country. In terms of water availability, Iceland is one of the group of countries that occupy a leading position not only in Europe, but throughout the world. With an average runoff layer of 1650 mm, each inhabitant of the island receives 675 thousand m 3 of water per year.

Vegetation. Woody vegetation is rare on the island, in the form of low-growing thickets of birch, shrubby willow, rowan and juniper on podzolic soils. These thickets have been severely exterminated and now cover no more than 6% of the area, mainly in the southern half of the island. Significant areas are occupied by moss and sedge bogs; In the warmest places, protected from the winds and near hot springs, lush grass and herb meadows appear. Vast tracts of wind-blown outwash sands, constantly renewed lava covers at the foot of volcanoes, the surfaces of basalt plateaus, corroded by frost weathering, are often completely barren or have only extremely sparse vegetation of mosses and lichens.

Animal world. Iceland is home to reindeer, Arctic fox, and wild reindeer brought from the mainland and wild. A huge number of waterfowl live along the shores of inland water bodies and along sea coasts. Coastal waters are rich in commercial fish species that come close to the shores of Iceland, accumulating within the continental shallows and in the fjords. Herring and cod are especially abundant off the coast of Iceland. Sea bass, haddock, and catfish are also caught. During fishing seasons, ships from different European countries are sent to the shores of the island.

Population and environmental problems. Most of the population, which totals about 300 thousand people, is concentrated in the southern and southwestern coastal regions of the island and is engaged in fishing and fish processing. In the interior of the country, grass growing and sheep farming are developed, and the number of sheep raised is several times greater than the number of inhabitants of the island. For a long time (since the 9th century), uncontrolled grazing led to intense digression of pastures. Almost all of Iceland's plains are subject to severe erosion or even more severe deflation, despite the fact that legislation to control wind erosion on grassland was passed in 1895 and was one of the first environmental legislation in Europe.

Read the descriptions nature of Russia and the countries of the former USSR can be found in the section " Physical geography of Russia and the USSR" of our website.

History of Iceland, geography of Iceland

Political system of Iceland, economic situation of Iceland, foreign policy of Iceland, culture of Iceland, Reykjavik

Section 1. History of Iceland.

Section 2. Geographical location of Iceland.

Section 3.Economy and political structure of Iceland.

Section 4.Culture and attractions of Iceland.

Iceland is an island nation located in the North Atlantic Ocean (northwest of Great Britain). The territory of the state consists of the island of Iceland, with an area of 103 thousand km2, and small islands around it.

A state on the island of Iceland between the Atlantic Ocean and the Greenland Sea, slightly south of the Arctic Circle. Distances to Iceland: 287 km east of Greenland, 420 km northwest of the Faroe Islands, 798 km northwest of Scotland, 970 km west of Norway.

The Atlantic Ocean washes the western, southern and eastern shores of Iceland. In the north, from Cape Streymnes in the northwest to Cape Bardneshodn in the northeast, is the Greenland Sea of the Arctic Ocean.

The territory of the state, which includes the island of Iceland itself and a number of nearby islands, occupies just over 100 thousand square kilometers. The population of Iceland is about 320 thousand people, which provides the state with an average population density of 3 people per 1 sq. km. More than 95% of the inhabitants of Iceland are actually Icelanders - direct descendants of the Scandinavians. In addition to them, Norwegians, Danes and some other nationalities also live here. The capital of the state, Reykjavik, is the main financial, cultural and business center of the country. It is also the world's northernmost capital, the country's main port and largest city. Other large cities in Iceland include Kopavogur and the port cities of Hafnarfjörður and Akureyri.

History of Iceland

The early history of Iceland became known from the famous sagas in which the first inhabitants of the island retold the events that took place there. The sagas were written on specially treated leather.

The island was discovered in the 8th century by the Irish. The first to come to Iceland were the Norwegian Vikings in the 9th-10th century AD. This was a forced resettlement of those who were dissatisfied with the creation of a unified royal power in Norway. The Norwegians settled along the coast and were engaged in grazing and marine fishing.

Representatives of the family nobility enjoyed a privileged position on the island. Every year in the summer months they met in council - the Althing - to resolve important issues. For the first time such a council met in 930, since then the formation of a democratic system began. Legislative and judicial powers were held by the leaders and were clearly separated; there was no executive power, because the settlers did not want to return to the unlimited freedoms of one ruler, as happened in Norway. By decision of the Althing, Christianity was introduced into Iceland in the year 1000.

At the beginning of the 13th century, civil war broke out in Iceland. Taking advantage of internal strife, the Norwegians captured the island in 1262. According to the treaty signed between the countries, Iceland recognized the supreme power of the Norwegian kings. Over time, the king's power increased - royal officials replaced the previous leaders.

In 1395, Iceland, together with Norway, came under Danish rule as a result of the signing of the Union of Kalmar. Denmark established a monopoly on trade, and a reformation of the church was also carried out. In 1550, the last Catholic bishop of the island was removed, and the Icelanders were forced to convert to Lutheranism. The monopoly on trade became especially strict in the 17th and 18th centuries, which led to the impoverishment of the local population. In 1800, one of the strongholds of the Icelandic state, the Althing, was abolished. At the beginning of the 19th century, having learned about the revolutionary ideas of some Europeans, Icelanders also began to seek political freedoms and local self-government. The first result of the struggle was the restoration of the Althing in 1843, followed by the abolition of the Danish trade monopoly, and the culmination of these events was the adoption of a constitution in 1874, which granted Iceland limited autonomy.

In 1903, the Liberal government of Denmark extended Iceland's autonomy. The post of Minister for Icelandic Affairs was introduced. Increasingly, negotiations took place between the two countries, which led to Iceland being declared an independent kingdom in a personal union with Denmark on December 1, 1918. Both countries agreed to have one king, and Denmark partially controlled Iceland's foreign policy. In 1920, a constitution was adopted, according to which legislative power belonged to the bicameral Althing, and the Government of Iceland was appointed by the king.

Due to growing militancy throughout the world, Iceland immediately declared its neutrality. However, during the Second World War, after the occupation of Denmark and Norway by Germany and after the landing of British troops on the island, having secured from England a promise to withdraw its troops after the war, Iceland became a strategic base for England. Later, in 1941, US troops landed in Iceland. The United States and Iceland entered into a treaty allowing the United States to patrol the North Atlantic from here.

In December 1943, the Treaty on the Union of Denmark and Iceland, concluded in 1918, expired. Most parties were in favor of breaking the union. In 1944, a national referendum was held, the majority of voters were in favor of declaring a republic, and on June 17 of the same year, the Icelandic Republic was proclaimed. In 1946, Iceland became a member of the UN, and in 1949 it joined NATO.

In foreign policy, Iceland is remembered for the so-called “cod wars”. Due to low fish catches, in the mid-20th century the country decided to expand the fishing zone for foreign vessels. The result was a ban on the sale of Icelandic fish in the UK, as well as a ban on Icelandic fish carriers from entering British ports. The expansion of national waters occurred whenever Iceland's fish catch was low. Disputes with other states only subsided in the 1990s, when Iceland's 200-mile fishing zone was recognized during negotiations between the European Free Trade Association and the European Union.

As people settled in Iceland, a state system was formed. In each region there was a ting (meeting, analogous to the ancient Russian veche), at which trials were held and disputes were resolved; To resolve the most important issues, representatives of the regions gathered at the beginning of the summer at the Althing under the control of the speaker of the laws. The Althing was first convened in 930, and it is from this date that the era of democracy begins.

After the dissolution of the Danish-Norwegian Union in 1814, Norway's island possessions, including Iceland, remained part of Denmark. In 1845, parliament was recreated as a legislative body. It received the Old Icelandic name "Althing".

As a result of more than a hundred years of peaceful struggle for independence, on December 1, 1918, Iceland was declared an independent kingdom in a personal union with Denmark. During World War II, the German occupation of Denmark on April 9, 1940 severed the connection between Denmark and Iceland. In May 1940, Great Britain captured Iceland and in 1941 transferred the right to occupy the island to the United States. On June 17, 1944, Iceland gained full independence and became a republic.

Coins from the Roman Empire dating back to the 3rd century AD have been discovered in Iceland. It is not known whether the Vikings brought them with them, or whether the islands were visited long before the 9th century. Noteworthy is the fact that “Thule”, or “Far Thule”, was repeatedly mentioned in Roman literature, which was described by the Greek navigator of the 4th century BC Pytheas from Massalia and whose natural and geographical description is in many ways reminiscent of Iceland.

There is also an opinion that the island was first visited by Irish monks, who began in the Middle Ages to look for deserted places and remote islands where they could pray to God in solitude. In the middle of the 7th century. they discovered the Faroe Islands, where they began to settle and raise sheep. From the Faroe Islands, sailors advanced further and, in the second half of the 8th century, may have reached Iceland or Thule, as it was called at that time. The discovery of the island could have happened earlier, since the Venerable Bede mentions Tula in his writings.

The medieval independent Icelandic state had an unusual structure. At the state level, the Althing had both legislative and judicial powers; the country did not have a king or any other central executive authorities. Iceland was divided into many godords, which were essentially clans or alliances led by so-called gods.

Leaders appointed judges to resolve disputes between godord members. Godords were not purely geographical areas. In fact, belonging to a godord was a personal decision of a person, and theoretically anyone could change their native godord to another. However, no group of people could choose someone for the position of godi: this status was the property of the godi, it could be bought, sold, inherited or borrowed.

The descendants of Ingolfr Arnarson, the first settler in Iceland, assumed the status of allsherjargoði, who was to consecrate the Althing when it met.

If someone wanted to challenge the decision of the local godord or the dispute was between representatives of different godords, the case was referred to the highest level court. These included four ships, which corresponded to the four regions of Iceland. The Althing represented the "fifth court", which was the highest court of all, and for many years there were members of it.

The Althing was partially able to stop the hostility; Magnus Magnusson calls it "an uneasy substitute for revenge." However, he could act very quickly. On the eve of the Christianization of Iceland, around the year 1000, in order to prevent the invasion of foreigners on the island, the Althing obliged all Icelanders to be baptized, and also forbade the public performance of pagan rituals. Personal performance of rituals was prohibited after a few years.

In 1117 the laws of the gods were written down, and this record was subsequently called "Grágás" ("Grey Goose").

At the beginning of the 13th century, during the era of the Sturlungs, serious internal conflicts began in the country. The King of Norway began to put pressure on his Icelandic vassals to hand over the country to his rule. A combination of dissatisfaction with internal military conflicts and pressure from the King of Norway forced Icelandic leaders to accept the authority of King Haakon IV, concluding the Gamli sáttmáli (Old Agreement) in 1262.

In the mid-9th century, a Norwegian named Naddod reached the island after losing his way on his way from Norway to the Faroe Islands. The Vikings landed on the east coast of Iceland. Wanting to explore the surroundings, they climbed a high mountain and began to look around for signs of human life, but could not notice anything. Before the team set sail, snow fell in the mountains, so Naddod named this place “Snowy Land.”

The next Viking to reach Iceland was the Swede Gardar Svavarsson. To make sure that there was an island in front of him, he moved his ship along the coast. The journey took a long time, and Gardar and his people had to wait out the winter months in one of the bays on the northern coast. There they built several houses, and since then the place has been called Husavik (“Bay of Houses”).

The Norwegian Viking Floki Vilgerdarson was the third Scandinavian to visit Iceland. He went in search of Gardarsholm with the intention of settling there, taking his family, friends and household. Floki and his men walked along the southern coast, around the Reykjanes Peninsula, moving further north until they discovered a fjord on the northwest coast, where the land was fertile and the vegetation abundant. All summer people were busy preparing supplies for the winter, but they completely forgot about hay, and during the long winter all the livestock died from lack of food. In the spring, Floki climbed the mountain and saw that the fjord was still covered with ice. Filled with bitter disappointment, he named the country Iceland (“Land of Ice”), and this name remains in use to this day.

The settlement of Iceland occurred in the 9th century as a result of the unification of Norway under the rule of King Harald I. Many families who came into conflict with Harald were forced to flee in search of a new place to live. Those who reached Iceland at first freely occupied lands on the coast - the sea was a source of not only food, but also wood (driftwood), since there were practically no forests in Iceland. The first settler is considered to be the noble Norwegian Ingolf Arnarson, who settled in the area of modern Reykjavik in 874.

The Althing was first convened in 930, and it is from this date that the era of democracy begins. Icelandic democracy is believed to be the oldest surviving one in the world. However, usually in a dispute at the Thing, the winner was not the one who was right from the point of view of the laws (ancient Icelandic law, like any ancient German law, was common and precedent, akin to modern Anglo-Saxon law), but the one who managed to enlist the support of a larger number of wealthy landowners. This was facilitated by the fact that the laws were extremely confusing, with many exceptions and special cases, and knowledge of the laws was a great art.

The history of Iceland is well known thanks to the large number of sagas that have come down to us. An ordinary Icelandic saga is a description of the life of one person (or an entire family) over many years, with a detailed description of the most important events. Iceland's population was small, and therefore its history is a history of smaller or larger private affairs and conflicts.

The ancient Icelanders were skilled sailors and Vikings. According to the “Saga of the Greenlanders,” the son of Eric the Red, Leif the Happy, reached the shores of America in 1000 and tried to establish a colony in the “Grape Country” - Vinland (it is believed that it was Labrador, Newfoundland or even New England). Literacy rates among the Icelanders were very high, and Norse mythology has survived to this day mainly due to the texts of the Elder (poetic) and Younger (prose) Eddas found in Iceland.

In 1262, Iceland was forced to sign the so-called “Old Treaty” with Norway, according to which it recognized the supreme power of the Norwegian kings, and they, in turn, pledged to send the Icelanders several ships each year with timber, grain and other goods. Icelanders swore allegiance personally to each king of Norway who ascended the throne and paid him an annual tax. However, if the king, in the opinion of the “best people,” violated the terms of the treaty, then the Icelanders had the right to consider themselves free from their obligations.

In 1397, Iceland, together with Norway (which also owned Greenland and the Faroe Islands), came under the rule of Denmark under the Union of Kalmar. The economic situation of Iceland then deteriorated somewhat, since Denmark did not have the same need for fish and wool exported from Iceland as Norway; the colony in neighboring Greenland ceased to exist by 1500. As part of the Danish policy of mercantilism from 1602 to 1786, Iceland could not trade with anyone other than Denmark.

The major eruption of the Laki volcano in 1783, combined with the cooling climate of that era, led to disasters known as Il. Móðuharðindin (English) Russian. At the same time, up to 80% of livestock died from lava flows and poisoning by volcanic gases; As a result of the disasters and subsequent famine, the population of Iceland decreased by 20-25%.

After the dissolution of the Danish-Norwegian union in 1814, Iceland (along with Norway’s other island possessions) was “forgot” to be transferred to Sweden along with Norway, and it remained part of Denmark.

In 1830, the ideas of Icelandic nationalism arose among Icelandic students in Copenhagen. The leader of the national movement was philologist Jon Sigurdson.

In 1845, parliament was recreated as a legislative body. It received the Old Icelandic name "Althing".

In 1851, the convened constituent assembly was dissolved by the authorities for too radical demands, but already in 1854 the Danish trade monopoly in Iceland was completely abolished. In 1855, a law on freedom of the press was introduced.

In 1874, when the millennium of the settlement of Iceland was celebrated, the Danish king Christian IX visited the island for the first time in history and announced further reforms. He gave Iceland its own constitution, according to which the Althing, which previously had advisory functions, received the rights of local legislative power. The country's taxpayers elected 30 deputies to its composition. The king also appointed 6 more deputies. Executive power remained in the hands of a governor appointed by the Danish government, who was subordinate to the Danish Ministry of Justice. Iceland also received its own minister - a member of the cabinet, who, however, was Danish, lived permanently in Copenhagen and was responsible only to the Danish parliament, and not to the Althing.

In the last decades of the 19th century, the first signs of a modernization process began to appear in the economy and social structure. Patriarchal forms of management gave way to market relations: large livestock farms and fishing enterprises arose. Since 1882, cooperation, sales and fishing, began to become widespread. In 1885, the National Bank of Iceland (Landsbanki Íslands) was established.

As a result of more than a hundred years of peaceful struggle for independence, on December 1, 1918, Iceland was declared an independent kingdom in a personal union with Denmark.

During World War II, the German occupation of Denmark on April 9, 1940 severed the connection between Denmark and Iceland. A month later, British naval forces entered Reykjavik harbor, violating Icelandic neutrality. The Allied occupation of Iceland lasted throughout the war. In 1941, the US Army accepted responsibility for the occupation.

On June 17, 1944, Iceland gains full independence and becomes a republic. Since then, June 17 (Republic Day) has been a public holiday in Iceland.

On March 30, 1949, Iceland joined NATO. The postwar period saw significant economic growth, fueled by the Marshall Plan, the industrialization of the fishing industry, and Keynesian government management of the economy.

In the 1970s, the so-called “cod war” took place - a diplomatic dispute with Great Britain over Iceland’s expansion of its fishing grounds.

A major event in Iceland's economy was the country's entry into the European Economic Area in 1994.

The Kingdom of Iceland is a former constitutional monarchy that existed in Iceland from December 1, 1918 to June 17, 1944. The kingdom was bound by a personal union with Denmark, and the kingdom was headed by King Christian X of Denmark. It ceased to exist as a result of a referendum on the independence of Iceland, according to which the country withdrew from any dependence on Denmark and was proclaimed a republic.

Iceland has been under Danish control since 1380, but Denmark did not begin formally governing the island until 1814, when it signed a union with Norway. Since 1874, approximately a thousand years after the first recorded settlement in Iceland, Icelanders have received some rights to self-government. This was written into the Danish Constitution, but was subsequently revised in 1903 when the Danes introduced a government commissioner for Iceland. The Commissioner was in Reykjavik and had to deal with affairs related to Iceland, as well as participate in the work of the local parliament, the Althing.

On December 1, 1918, the Act of Unification into a Personal Union between Denmark and Iceland under the control of a single king was signed, according to which Denmark recognized Iceland as a completely sovereign state connected with Denmark by a personal union. Iceland created its own flag and coat of arms, and also asked Denmark to represent it internationally and deal with the defense of Iceland. In 1940, the act of union was revised, and three years later it was supposed to be re-signed, which did not happen.

On April 9, 1940, Germany began its occupation of Denmark. Within a few hours after the occupation of the country, communication between Denmark and Iceland was interrupted. Iceland began to be governed by parliament. The de facto ruler of Iceland was Svein Björnsson, Commissioner for Icelandic Affairs, who later became the first President of the Republic of Iceland.

In this regard, the Icelandic parliament asked Bjornsson to take control of internal and external affairs. In the first year of the war, Iceland took a neutral position, resisting both Great Britain and the Third Reich. The country feared an invasion by one of the parties. On May 10, 1940, Operation Fork (the British invasion of Iceland) began. About 800 British soldiers and sailors landed at the port of Reykjavik. The Icelandic government was critical of the intervention forces, but on May 17, the key positions of the island were occupied, four thousand British troops landed on the country's territory, so Icelandic Prime Minister Hermann Jonasson gave a message to accept the intervention forces with hospitality and respect. Allied forces remained on the island until the end of the war in 1945.

During the peak of the occupation of Iceland, there were 25 thousand British soldiers on the island. Their placement virtually eliminated unemployment in the Reykjavik area and other strategic locations. In July 1941, with the consent of both sides, control of the island passed to the United States. This was because the British needed military power in other regions. At the peak of the American occupation of the country, there were 40 thousand American soldiers on the island, which was equal to or even greater than the number of working-age men on the island (the population of Iceland at that time was 120-130 thousand inhabitants).

On May 24, 1944, a referendum on the country's independence was held in Iceland. The majority of voters voted for complete independence, which was proclaimed on June 17, 1944. In Denmark, at that time occupied by Germany, the declaration of Icelandic independence was received with indignation, and thoughts arose about military intervention on the island. However, King Christian X of Denmark sent a letter in which he congratulated the citizens of the young state.

In October 2008, the collapse of Iceland's banking system nearly led to the country's bankruptcy. Iceland felt the global financial crisis more than any other country in Europe. Rising inflation and unemployment, coupled with a fall in GDP and the Icelandic krona, have put Iceland in an extremely difficult economic situation. Sociologists predict an increase in the number of emigrants from the country.

On November 27, 2010, elections to the Constituent Assembly were held in Iceland. Elected delegates will have to update the constitution to take into account the wishes of the population.

By the beginning of 2012, economic growth, restoration of pre-crisis GDP and a decrease in unemployment became noticeable. Iceland has officially lifted the crisis situation in the country.

Geographical location of Iceland

Despite its name and the presence of glaciers, Iceland is by no means an Arctic country. The climate in the country is maritime, moderately cool, with strong winds, humid and changeable. The weather in Iceland is influenced by two sea currents (the warm North Atlantic, a continuation of the Gulf Stream, and the cold East Greenland) and Arctic drift ice, which accumulates on the northern and eastern coasts. July and August are the warmest months (in Reykjavik in July up to +20 °C). The average annual temperature on the southwest coast in Reykjavik is 5 °C, the average January temperature is −1 °C, and July is 11 °C. Corresponding figures on the northern coast (in Akureyri) are 3 °C, −2 °C and 11 °C. The average annual temperature does not fall below +4 °C. Coastal waters are ice-free throughout the year. The exception is situations related to the removal of polar ice in the north and east. Due to the significant improvement in climate since the early 1920s, the removal of polar ice to the shores of Iceland occurred only once, in 1965. The weather in this country changes dramatically, sometimes within a day, depending on the passage of cyclones eastward across the Atlantic Ocean. An Icelandic proverb says: “If you don't like the weather, wait five minutes and it will get worse.” The dark time lasts from mid-November to the end of January. At this time, the height of the Sun at the moment of its highest culmination does not exceed a few degrees (there is no polar night in Iceland). Iceland has “white nights” throughout the summer; on June 21, the sun rises at 02:54 and sets at 24:02. December, unlike June, is the darkest month - daylight lasts no more than 5 hours.

Average annual precipitation is 1300-2000 mm on the southern coast, 500-750 mm on the northern coast and over 3800 mm on the south-facing slopes of Vatnajökull and Mýrdalsjökull.

Iceland is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean, near the Arctic Circle, between Greenland and Norway, and belongs to the state of the same name. Almost the entire territory of the island is a volcanic plateau with peaks up to 2 km, which drops quite steeply to the ocean, forming thousands of fjords. The average height above sea level is 500 m. Numerous active volcanoes (Hekla, Askya, Laki, etc.), geysers, hot springs, lava fields and glaciers cover almost the entire territory of the country. The highest peak of the island is Hvannadalshnukur peak (2109.6 m).

The total area of Iceland is about 103 thousand km² (18th place in the world). Of these, 11.8 thousand km². covered with glaciers. Lakes and glaciers occupy 14.3% of the territory; Only 23% is covered with vegetation. The largest lakes are Thorisvatn (reservoir) (83-88 km²) and Thingvallavatn (82 km²). The central part of the island is a desert region of volcanoes, sand and lava fields, highlands and glaciers. Plateaus from 500 to 1000 m in height predominate. Only 1/4 of the territory is suitable for habitation - coastal lowlands and valleys.

Iceland is an island located on the ridge of the North Atlantic global tectonic suture, along which the North American and Eurasian lithospheric plates diverge.

The island is composed of thick layers of basalts and other lavas that poured out gradually from the Lower Miocene to the present day, that is, over 20 million years. The thickness of the lava layers reaches 7 km.

Iceland is one of the most active regions of volcanic activity on Earth. Eruptions occur here on average once every five years. On the island there are active volcanoes (Hekla, Laki), geysers, and hot springs. Due to the annual divergence of plates, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes periodically occur on the island.

Volcano Hekla

A glacier covered with ash after the Eyjafjallajökull volcano eruption

Hekla is the most popular volcano in Iceland. Its perfectly regular, gentle cone is clearly visible from Reykjavik, and for the Icelanders it is the same national symbol as for the Japanese - Fujisan. And just like in Japan, thousands of tourists strive every year to climb to its top and look into the dark depths of the crater.

However, classic central-type volcanoes are not very common in Iceland. Here there is a different type of fissure volcanism. A striking example is the Laki volcano - it’s not even a volcano, but a giant crack in the earth’s crust filled with frozen lava.

The Esja volcano, extinct centuries ago, is visible from everywhere in Reykjavik as a long mountain, almost an entire ridge, with a flat top. Folk tradition says that Esya is a petrified giantess. Geologists claim that the mountain was formed from numerous frozen lava flows, which were layered one on top of the other over many centuries.

On the Snæfellsjökull glacier, at the westernmost point of the Icelandic Snæfellsnes peninsula, lies the Snæfells volcano.

Volcanic eruptions sometimes occur not only on Iceland itself, but also on the ocean floor off its coast, as well as on small islands.

In 1783, during the eruption of the Laki volcano, located southwest of Vatnajökull, the largest lava flow observed on Earth in historical time was formed.

In 1963, as a result of the eruption of an underwater volcano, a new island, Surtsey, emerged, which became the southernmost point of the country.

In 1973, a volcano erupted on the island. Heimaey, due to which the population of the city of Vestmannaeyjar had to be evacuated.

Other volcanoes in Iceland:

Katla. The last eruptions were in 1918, 1934 and 1955. Subglacial activity leads to intensive melting of ice and flooding of neighboring areas with meltwater.

Eyjafjallajökull - considered active. Eruptions - which began on March 21, 2010 (activated on April 14, 2010 and are developing to the present), before that - in 1821-1823.

Thermal springs scattered throughout Iceland (more than 250) are associated with volcanic activity. Solfatars (emissions of sulfur and hydrogen sulfide gases with high temperatures, released from cracks in the earth's crust) are located only in areas of young volcanism. The most famous gushing spring is the Great Geysir (its name has become a common noun for all geysers). The energy from hot springs is widely used in Iceland to heat houses (more than 85% of the country's population lives in such houses), supply warm water to swimming pools and greenhouses.

On the coastal lowlands and low plateaus, fertile soils are developed; at the edges of glaciers they are often swampy. The soils of Iceland are partly mineral, loess type, partly marshy, enriched with volcanic ash, and partly aeolian, silty and sandy. Less than 1/4 of the country's territory is covered with vegetation (versus 2/3 when the country was settled 1,100 years ago). The vast interior plateaus are almost entirely devoid of vegetation. The vegetation is dominated by mosses and grasses. Until recently, woody plants occupied only 1% of the area. These are mainly birch trees, often with twisted trunks due to strong winds. In recent years, coniferous plantations have been created in some places.

Glaciers in Iceland cover approximately 11,400 km² (11.1% of the country's total area of 103,125 km²) and have a significant impact on the island's landscape.

Many glaciers are located above volcanoes. Thus, the volcanoes Grimsvotn and Bárdarbunga are located under the large Vatnajökull glacier. The Grímsvötn caldera is 100 km² and Bárðarbunga is 60 km².

Due to geothermal activity, meltwater accumulates beneath glaciers, which can lead to flash floods of glacial lakes, called flash floods. jökullhlaup "jökullhlaup".

The likelihood of “jökullhlaup” increases significantly when volcanic activity begins under the glacier. An explosion (rapid vaporization) of subglacial waters trapped in a hot zone can, in turn, trigger a volcanic event.

The area of the island is 103 thousand km², of which 11.8 thousand km² is covered with glaciers. The largest cover glacier (the largest in volume not only in Iceland, but throughout Europe) - Vatnajökull - is located in the southeast of the island. Its area is 8300 km². This is a vast ice plateau, pierced in eight places by the points of extinct and active volcanoes. Other major ice caps are Hofsjökull and Langjökull in the interior of the island, and Mýrdalsjökull and Eyjafjallajökull in the south (covering active volcanoes). Icelandic glaciers are the largest area of modern glaciation in Europe.

The coastline has a length of about 4970 km. In the north-west, north and east it is heavily dissected by fjords, including the bays of Fahsafloi, Breidafjord, Issafjord, Hunafloui, Skagafjord, Eyjafjord, Ehsarfjord, Thistilfjord, Bakkafjord and Vopnafjörður. The southern and southwestern shores are sandy and have no natural harbors.

It is likely that the existence of Iceland was known as early as the 4th century BC. e. (the expedition of Pytheas from Massalia to the mysterious Thule Island), but the first settlements of Irish monks appeared here only at the beginning of the 9th century. According to the records of the monks, and they kept them very carefully, no traces of ancient settlements were found on the island. The Irish monks were driven out of Iceland by the Vikings who arrived there in 874. At the same time, Ingolfr (Ingolf) Arnarson, a Viking from western Norway, founded with his people the present capital of Iceland, Reykjavik.

Austur-Barðastrandarsýsla

Austur-Húnavatnssýsla

Austur-Skaftafellssýsla

Borgarfjarðarsýsla

Eyjafjarðarsýsla

Gullbringusýsla

Norður-Ísafjarðarsýsla

Norður-Múlasýsla

Norður-Þingeyjarsýsla

Rangárvallasýsla

Skagafjarðarsýsla

Snæfellsnes-og Hnappadalssýsla

Suður-Múlasýsla

Suður-Þingeyjarsýsla

Vestur-Barðastrandarsýsla

Vestur-Húnavatnssýsla

Vestur-Ísafjarðarsýsla

Vestur-Skaftafellssýsla

Urban districts:

Akranes

Akureyri

Aulftanes

Bolungarvík

Vestmannaeyjar

Gardabær

Grindavik

Grundarfjörður

Dalvik

Ísafjörður

Keflavík

Kópavogur

Neskaupstaður

Olafsvik

Olafsfjörður

Reykjavik

Selfoss

Seltjarnarnes

Seyðisfjörður

Sauðárkrókur

Siglufjörður

Hafnarfjörður

Husavík

Eskifjörður.

Economy and political structure of Iceland

Previously, Iceland was practically a country of monoculture economy - the main source of income was fishing and fish processing (32% of the industry in 2001). However, in recent years there has been an intensive diversification of industry based on cheap renewable energy (mainly geothermal sources and hydropower).

The Icelandic government has announced a large-scale program to build aluminum smelters. Biotechnology, tourism, banking, and information technology are also actively developing. In terms of employment structure, Iceland looks like an industrialized country: 7.8% in agriculture, 22.6% in industry, and 69.6% in services.

In 2007, the UN recognized Iceland as the best country to live in the world.

The global financial crisis of 2008 also affected Iceland. The Icelandic krona fell by 60%, and the stock market fell very strongly. Very serious problems began in the country's banking system. The country was actually on the verge of bankruptcy. In 2009, the country's real GDP decreased by 6.8%, which was due to a 50% drop in the total number of investments in such sectors of the economy as construction and services. The crisis also seriously affected the situation on the labor market, as the unemployment rate reached a record 9.4%. The EU countries reacted rather coolly to requests for financial assistance from Iceland, while dealing with their problems. Moreover, some Icelandic assets were frozen by the British government, citing anti-terrorism legislation. To restore the economy, Iceland decided to join the EU.

Iceland's Scandinavian type of social market economy allowed the country to be one of the most economically developed countries in the world before the crisis that began in the country in 2008. One of the main macroeconomic indicators of the country until 2008 was a low unemployment rate (in different years in this country the unemployment rate was 1-3%, and in June 2010 it was 7.6%), high economic growth rates (before the crisis, GDP growth in in the early 2000s the average was 4-5%, in 2008 1.6%, and in 2009 the decline in GDP was 6.5%), uniform distribution of income (in 2005 the Gini index was only 25), etc. etc. The only weak macroeconomic indicator is the high level of inflation, which remained above 10% before the crisis, but during the crisis, inflation did not give way to deflation, as in many developed countries, but only dropped to 3-4%. Before the crisis, GDP per capita at purchasing power parity was more than US$38,000. The country's GDP (at purchasing power parity) in 2007 was 12.85 billion US dollars, in 2008 13.02 billion US dollars, and in 2009 12.2 billion US dollars. In 2010, it is expected that the country's GDP may reach pre-crisis levels (2007 levels). However, the IMF predicts a decline in the country's GDP of 3% in 2010 and growth of 2.3% in 2011.

In the late 90s, the development of the financial system began in Iceland. The country, with the majority of its GDP coming from fishing, became one of the main financial centers in Europe. The development of Iceland's financial system has had both positive and negative impacts on the country's economy. The positive impact was to stimulate the country’s economy as a whole, strengthen the banking system, increase real incomes of the population, and so on. However, such rapid development led to the so-called Dutch disease, an extremely weak diversification of the economy, which was the reason why the crisis hit this country harder than other developed countries. In 1985, the Icelandic Stock Exchange was organized, initially as a joint venture of some banks and brokerage firms on the initiative of the Central Bank of Iceland. The financial services market is regulated by a centralized body, the Icelandic Financial Supervisory Authority.

Until 2006, Iceland's banking system was one of the most developed in the world. Based on research conducted by Moody's in April 2006, the country's three largest banks, Glitnir, Koipting and Landsbaunki, were in a stable financial position, but their activities were subject to several risks. Before the financial crisis of 2008, the strengths of the Icelandic banking system were: diversification of income and expenses by type of business and by geography; a high probability of government assistance in the event of unfavorable events in the banking system; good financial foundation; high efficiency; high-quality portfolio of financial obligations; high-level credit risk management; as well as an adequate level of capitalization. Before the crisis, the weaknesses of the Icelandic banking system were: imbalance in the economic and social spheres of the economy due to keeping income and expenses at the same level and fierce competition within the country's banking system.

In Iceland, the regulator of the money supply is the Central Bank of Iceland, which coordinates the country's monetary policy. The main tasks of the Central Bank of Iceland: price stabilization, inflation management and the exchange rate of the country's national currency. Iceland's central bank must publish data on the country's money supply every year, as well as evaluate the national currency and forecast inflation three years in advance, based on studies of macroeconomic dynamics. The main goal of the Central Bank of Iceland is to stabilize prices and keep inflation low. Intervention in foreign currency is allowed only if it helps to control inflation. Due to high inflation, the central bank's refinancing rate rose continuously until January 2009, when it stood at 18% and was one of the highest in the world. After the Central Bank of Iceland clarified the refinancing rate several times, reducing it, in May 2009 the rate reached 13% (September 2006 level), and in the third quarter of 2010 the rate was reduced to 4.5%.

The main sources of government revenue are taxes, customs duties and other payments. The state receives significant revenues from commercial enterprises that it controls, such as postal and telephone services, shipping, and a number of monopolies (sale of alcoholic beverages and tobacco products). In addition to normal government spending, the Icelandic government spends on supporting artists and writers and subsidizing agriculture and various industries. Until 2008, the country's budget was in surplus; in some years there was a slight deficit. However, in 2008 Iceland's budget deficit was US$1.4 billion.

Iceland occupied one of the main places in the IMF program to provide assistance to the most vulnerable countries in the world. Although Iceland's budget has always had a social focus, the main goal of the country's fiscal policy during the crisis was to increase social spending. Automatic stabilizers operated with few restrictions in 2009, meaning Iceland's extensive social safety net helped soften the blow for the most vulnerable. Fiscal consolidation was planned for 2010-2012, which aims to achieve a gradual and orderly return to sustainable levels of borrowing while maintaining Iceland's Nordic welfare state model. To this end, the 2010 budget maintained key social spending programs and even introduced new programs to address specific problems. New programs include eradicating youth unemployment and excessive household debt. Consultation with social partners and consensus building are now central to the budget planning process.

There are nine tax departments in Iceland, each of which is managed by a head of tax department. This country has some of the highest tax rates. So the value added tax rate in Iceland is 24.5%. Income tax rates in Iceland:

37.2% - for a private entrepreneur;

26% - for partnership. The partners themselves are exempt from further taxation in Iceland;

18% - for the company and branch. Profits paid out to shareholders are subject to additional taxation at a rate of 15%.

The basis for withholding income tax is income after deducting contributions to the pension fund. Income and municipal taxes are collected in cash; in 2009 they amounted to 37.2%. These taxes are withheld in cash each month from wages or other income.

In Iceland, all land that can be used for agricultural purposes is cultivated, which occupies only 1% of the country's territory. At the same time, only 5% of the population is employed in agriculture, and gross agricultural output is only 1.4% of GDP (2005). However, it cannot be said that Icelandic agriculture is a backward industry. In 2006, there were approximately 4,500 farms in the country, of which approximately 80% were privately owned. In 2008, Iceland had more than 130,000 head of cattle, about 460,000 sheep, 75,000 horses (see Icelandic horse), about 500 goats, more than 4,000 pigs and about 200,000 chickens.

In recent years, areas of agriculture that were not traditional for this country have begun to develop. Thus, over the past 20 years, the wheat harvest has increased more than 20 times, amounting to 11 thousand tons.

The share of fish products in the country's exports is 63%, and the average annual catch reaches 1.3 million tons. Iceland has adopted a number of measures to limit fishing activity, based on an individual rolling quota system, which, together with the Total Allowable Catch (TAC) indicator, is the cornerstone of the Icelandic fisheries management system. The total allowable catch is set by the Marine Research Institute in accordance with data on the number of schools. Depending on this indicator, a fixed share of the catch quota is distributed between vessels. There are also rules regarding the type of fishing equipment allowed, such as minimum net sizes. Fishing using trawls is prohibited in many areas near the coast, which serve as spawning and feeding grounds. Temporary, partial and permanent closure of fishing areas for fish spawning is provided to protect young fish.

Electricity production in Iceland per capita is several times higher than the EU average and in 2008 reached 53,129 kWh⁄(person year). The main consumers are various non-ferrous metallurgy enterprises. With a total installed capacity of 1.7 GW in 2006, Iceland's energy sector is based on renewable energy sources - thermal power plants generate less than 10% of the total electricity produced. In 2012, there were no wind power plants in the country; the main areas being developed were hydropower and geoenergy.

The largest electricity company is Landsvirkjun, which owns the largest station in the country - the Kaurahnjukar hydroelectric station. The most powerful of Iceland's geothermal power plants, Hellisheidy Geothermal Power Plant, was the largest plant of its type in the world in 2012.

Iceland does not have regular armed forces. Among the paramilitary structures there is the Coast Guard (COHR). There are no other armed formations in peacetime. NATO defends the country. Iceland was one of the first (April 4, 1949) to join NATO; in the city of Keflavik, not far from the capital, there was an air base of the North Atlantic Alliance (since September 30, 2006, the base ceased functioning, but the infrastructure remained). According to Forbes magazine, Iceland is the 2nd most peaceful country in the world.

The population of Iceland is 319,575 people. (as of January 1, 2012), of which 16% are employed in agriculture, 21% in fishing, 18% in industry and crafts, 25% in trade and transport, 10% in others.

The national composition is homogeneous: over 95% are Icelanders - descendants of Scandinavians who speak Icelandic. The country is also home to Poles, Danes, Norwegians, etc. The average population density is about 3 people. per 1 sq. km. About 60% of the population is concentrated in the southwestern part of the country (Reykjavik and its surroundings).

The influx of immigrants to Iceland is very small, but nevertheless, in addition to immigrants from nearby countries (Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Germany, Poland), the country also has a small number of immigrants (mostly refugees) from distant countries - mainly the Philippines, China , Thailand and some others. Immigration laws in Iceland are quite strict, and it is very difficult to get permanent residence there, especially for visitors from distant countries.

The level of migration from the country is also very low, even though many Icelanders go to study in countries such as the UK, Norway and others, they almost always return back to their homeland. However, Iceland has a very high level of internal migration. Many Icelanders move from small fishing villages and tiny towns to Reykjavik and the surrounding area in hopes of better jobs and housing. The government is trying to fight this, because as a result, many villages and even cities that have historically stood there for many years are being abandoned.

The head of state is the president, elected in direct general elections for a term of 4 years. President Olafur Ragnar Grimsson was elected on June 29, 1996, remained for a second term on June 29, 2000 due to the lack of other candidates, was elected for a third term on June 26, 2004, and automatically remained for a fourth term in 2008, again due to the lack of other candidates. , was elected to a fifth term in 2012. The executive body - the government of Iceland - consists of the prime minister and ministers (herrar), currently consisting of representatives of two parties - the Independence Party and the Progressive Party. The Prime Minister (Forsætisráðherrar) is confirmed by the President following the results of parliamentary elections after consultations with the leaders of party factions in the Althing. As a result of the elections in April 2009, Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir became Prime Minister, having temporarily held this position since January 2009. Iceland is a member of the Nordic Council (since 1952), the UN (since 1946), NATO (since 1949) and EFTA (since 1970) .

Legislative body - unicameral Parliament (Althing) (Alþingi), operating since 930, (63 members (Þingmaður, tingmans); members are directly elected for 4 years); they elect the President of the Althing (Forseti Alþingis) from among their members. Until 1991, the Althing was bicameral. Parliament can pass a vote of no confidence in the government.

The Constitution of the Republic of Iceland was adopted in 1920. Later, significant changes were made to it - in 1944 and 1991. June 17 (the day the Constitution was adopted) is considered Iceland's Independence Day. On November 27, 2010, elections to the Constituent Assembly were held in Iceland. Elected delegates will have to update the constitution to take into account the wishes of the population.

Icelandic political parties:

Independence Party (IP) - founded in 1929 - conservative orientation,

Liberal Party (LP) - created in 1998 - right-of-center.

Progressive Party (PP) - created in 1916 - centrists,

Social Democratic Alliance (SDA) - formed in 1998 - left-centrists,

Left-Green Movement (LZD) - created in 1999 - left socialists,

The leading trade union organization is the Federation of Trade Unions of Iceland (IFI).

The President is the head of state of Iceland and represents Iceland in international law. His term of office is four years, beginning on August 1 of the election year. Elected by direct vote of voters with a simple majority of votes. Icelandic citizens over the age of 18 have the right to vote in presidential elections; a presidential candidate must be at least 40 years old.

The current president is Olavur Ragnar Grimsson, who has been president since 1996.

Current political parties in Iceland:

Independence Party (IP) - founded in 1929, conservative orientation;

Progressive Party (PP) - created in 1916, centrists;

Social Democratic Alliance (Iceland) (SDA) - formed in 1998, center-left;

Left-Green Movement (LZD) - created in 1999, left socialists.

Icelandic movement - created in 2010, social democratic orientation.

Iceland is a member of the following organizations:

FAO (since 1945),

United Nations (since 1946),

NATO (since 1949),

Council of Europe (since 1949),

Northern Council (since 1952),

European Free Trade Association (since 1960),

OECD (since 1961),

UNESCO (since 1964),

OSCE (since 1975/1992),

West North Council (since 1985/1997),

Barents Sea Council (since 1993),

WTO (since 1995),

Council of the Baltic Sea States (since 1995),

Arctic Council (since 1996),

International Whaling Commission.

Iceland is a member of NATO, the Nordic Council, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the UN and its specialized organizations, as well as the Council of Europe and the European Free Trade Association.

Iceland is not a member of the European Union. The main reason is the existence of quotas for fishing, the main sector of the country's economy. But at the same time, the country is a member of the Schengen Agreement.

Diplomatic relations between Iceland and the USSR were established in September 1943. Iceland was one of the first to recognize the independence of the Baltic states even before the collapse of the USSR. In December 1991, Iceland recognized the Russian Federation as the successor state of the USSR. In 1994, in Moscow, the foreign ministers signed the Declaration on the Fundamentals of Relations between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Iceland, which determined the main directions of interaction between the parties.

For a number of years, Russia and Iceland could not resolve the problem of cod fishing in a certain area of the Barents Sea. In 1999, a Russian-Norwegian-Icelandic agreement on certain aspects of fishing was signed in St. Petersburg, which resolved the problem of uncontrolled fishing of cod by Icelanders in the open part of the Barents Sea.

In 2005, Iceland's trade turnover with Russia amounted to $55 million. Icelandic exports are dominated by fish and fish products and industrial products. Russian exports include oil, petroleum products, metal, lumber. Among the promising areas of cooperation, experts name geothermal energy, software development (see EVE Online), and tourism. Negotiations are currently underway between Russian Aluminum and the Icelandic government regarding investment in the Icelandic aluminum industry.

Relations with the European continent are also developing. Since 2009, Iceland has been changing its foreign policy towards joining the EU. Iceland's application was submitted in the summer of 2009.

Iceland's largest economic partners are the UK, USA and Germany.

Culture and attractions of Iceland

In Iceland, Yule is celebrated on December 24, the mid-winter holiday. It lasts 12 nights, starting with the night before the winter solstice. The celebration traditions are similar to Christmas ones. Coniferous trees are brought into the house, gifts and competitions are prepared, the branches of evergreen trees are decorated with toys and garlands. Gifts are placed under the Yule tree.

June 17 - Icelandic Independence Day (day of the proclamation of the republic). On this day, parades are held, and one of the characters of the festivities is the Lady of the Mountain, personifying the image of Iceland.

Icelandic culture is rooted in Old Norse traditions. The most famous classical literary works are considered to be sagas, prose epics written during the period of settlement of the island. The most famous is the Elder Edda (1222-1225). A translation of the Bible into Icelandic was published in the 14th century. Probably the most famous Icelandic writer of recent times is the novelist and essayist Halldór Kiljan Laxness, who received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1955. Among contemporary writers, Hallgrimur Helgason, the author of the novels Hella (1990) and 101 Reykjavik (1996), stands out. In addition to Helgason, Einar Karason and his work “Storm” can be called a notable writer. The book was nominated for the Nordic Council Prize, the Icelandic Prize for Literature and was translated into several languages, including Russian.

National melodies (Il. tvisöngur) have been known since 1001. The most famous composer of the 19th century is Sveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson (1847-1927), author of the Icelandic national anthem. The most famous composers of the 20th century. - Jon Leifs (1899-1968) and Paul Isolfsson (1897-1974). The Reykjavik Orchestra was organized in 1925, and the Icelandic Opera was founded in 1980. A prominent representative of Icelandic music at present is the singer Björk; Also of note are the now popular post-rock band Sigur Rós, instrumentalist Ólafur Arnalds, the quirky Múm, pop singer Johanna and the band GusGus, widely known in the world of electronic music. Vocalist Eirikur Heuksson is quite famous in the world of heavy music, having twice represented Iceland at the Eurovision Song Contest (in 1986 and 2007).

Reykjavik annually hosts a major jazz festival, the Reykjavik Jazz Festival.

About 400 books and magazines are published in Iceland each year. The first newspaper appeared in 1848. There are also 35 newspapers published in the country, most of which are weekly. Of the five daily newspapers, Morgunbladid, the press organ of the Independence Party, has the largest circulation. “DV” and “Alpudibladet” are very popular.

Until recently, there was only one radio station (in Reykjavik) and three relay stations. Now there are 3 stations in the CB range, 70 in the FM range (including repeaters) and one HF. There are radios in every home (according to statistics - 260,000).

Television broadcasting in Iceland began in 1966. There are 14 television stations (including 156 repeaters), as well as a television station at the American base in Keflavik.

Internet domain Iceland.is. Currently, the country has about 20 Internet providers, 263,980 hosts and more than 200,300 active Internet users.

Reporters Without Borders ranks Iceland's media as one of the freest in the world.

The culture of Iceland is the culture of the Icelanders - the main people inhabiting Iceland, which, going back to the traditions of the Vikings, developed under the influence of pagan religion, and subsequently Christianity, without undergoing major changes over the last millennium and maintaining its originality. The reason for this is not only and not so much the isolation of the Icelanders from other European peoples, but the main national traits of the Icelanders - ethnocentrism and conservatism. However, geographical factors, such as the harsh subarctic climate, long polar days and nights, the scarcity of flora and fauna and isolation from mainland Europe, and natural phenomena such as frequent earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods and snow storms, also could not but influence the culture of this northern people.

Due to Iceland's separation from mainland Europe, the Icelandic language retained similarities to Old Norse. The Icelandic people maintain linguistic purity, so that there are practically no borrowings in the language - new terms are formed through compounding and word formation. The vocabulary of the Icelandic language is dominated by native vocabulary. Due to the puristic nature of Icelandic literature and its orientation towards classical Old Icelandic literature, words for new lexical meanings arise mainly through tracing (see tracing paper). Standard Icelandic has almost no international terminology, and new terms are calques rather than borrowed phonetically. In spoken language, the percentage of borrowings from Danish and English is higher. Icelandic is one of the richest languages in the world, not only because of its large and rich vocabulary, but also because of its enormous literary heritage. In the Middle Ages, runic writing was used, and later the Icelandic alphabet was created on a Latin basis. In the 1990s, a movement began for an Icelandic language without foreign words, and at the beginning of the 21st century, an ultrapurist form of the language emerged, which was called High Icelandic (Háfrónska in Icelandic). The word "frónska" is derived from "frón", a poetic name for Iceland, which was one of the names of the Earth appearing in the epic prose of the Edda. Although the language does not have official status, there is a Center for High Icelandic, whose goal is not only to replace borrowings with neologisms, but also to promote the new language.

However, it does not follow from the above that the Icelandic language has not changed at all over the last millennium. It has changed, but these changes were not provoked by the influence of other languages. In the 9th century, when the settlement of the island began, the Scandinavian languages were almost indistinguishable from each other. The author of the First Grammatical Treatise, a work written in Iceland in the mid-12th century, also calls his language Danish (dönsk tunga); this was the name of the language of all Scandinavian peoples until the 12th-13th centuries. In the 13th-14th centuries, the language of the Icelanders and Norwegians was called the “nordic language” (norrœnt mál), and the expression “Icelandic language” (íslenska) appeared only in the 15th century.

In 1925, Iceland passed a special law prohibiting citizens of the country from acquiring surnames. However, some citizens of the country, mainly immigrants, have a surname, and most native Icelanders only have patronymics, which are formed by adding either son (son) or dóttir (daughter) to the father's name. For example, Jon Petursson's son will be called Arni Jonsson, and his daughter will be Agnes Jonsdottir. In the telephone directory, everyone is listed by their first name, and until recently the range of Icelandic names was limited - no one could become an Icelandic citizen unless their name was Icelandic (see Icelandic name). This law was changed in the 90s, and now you can become an Icelandic citizen without changing your name.

Medieval Icelandic literature is unique and rich. Its uniqueness lies not only in the fact that it is the only ancient Germanic literature that preserved pre-Christian myths and folk epics, but also in the fact that the Icelanders preserved Old Icelandic, or, which is almost the same thing, the Old Norse language, which has remained almost unchanged for many centuries , and now examples of medieval Icelandic literature are of the same value to modern Icelanders as they were to the first settlers of Iceland. The ancestors of the Scandinavian peoples, the Vikings, brought with them two types of poetry to the island - Eddic and skaldic.

The Edda is the main work of German-Scandinavian mythology. Consists of two versions: the Elder Edda (a poetic collection of Scandinavian myths), as well as the Younger Edda (a work by the medieval Icelandic writer Snorri Sturluson, conceived as a textbook of skaldic poetry. Both Eddas were written in the 13th century. In form, the Edda is an ancient Germanic alliterative verse. In content, they partly mythological, partly aphoristic or didactic and partly heroic.

Skaldic poetry is a more common form of poetry in ancient Scandinavia and in Iceland in particular. The first skalds were Norwegians. In the 10th century the art of skalds became widespread in Iceland. From this time on, most skalds in the courts of the nobility came from Iceland. The most famous skalds: Bragi Boddason (9th century), Egil Skallagrimsson (c. 910 - c. 990), Cormac Egmundarson (10th century), Snorri Sturluson and others.

With the adoption of Christianity in the 10th century, writing came to Iceland and written literary genres - sagas and poems - began to develop.

A saga is a prose work of various types. Some sagas are factual, they describe real facts and people, while others are mythical-heroic. Some of the most famous sagas are “Njal’s Saga”, “Egil’s Saga” and “Gisli’s Saga”, which are generic sagas - prose works associated with oral folk tradition. The royal sagas are stories from the history of Norway until the mid-13th century, the best of which is Heimskringla, written by Snorri Sturluson in the early 13th century. In the 13th and 14th centuries, sagas of ancient times were created, telling about people who lived before the 10th century. The chronicles of the Norwegian kings began in the 12th century. semi-legendary sagas about the first Christian kings - Olav Tryggvason and Olav Haraldsson the Saint.

In the 14th and 15th centuries, Romans, somewhat modified French ballads, gained great popularity. But poems also became widespread. The most famous poem of this time is "The Lily", written by E. Ausgrimsson, and the most outstanding poems written by J. Arason, the last Catholic bishop of Iceland, executed on November 7, 1550.

In Iceland, the New Testament was published in 1540, the Bible in 1584, and the pinnacle of cult literature was the beautiful “Hymns of the Passion of the Lord” by H. Pietursson and “Home Sermons” by Bishop J. Vidalin.

During the Renaissance in Scandinavia, collectors from Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Iceland began to collect Icelandic manuscripts, which were already very highly valued, because even then, in the 17th century, they were considered antiquity, but of course they also had literary and artistic value. A. Magnusson played a major role in collecting and preserving the Icelandic literary heritage.

The main trend in Icelandic literature of the 19th century was romanticism. For the first time, romanticism declared itself in the courageous poems of B. Thorarensen (1786-1841) and the transparent stanzas of J. Hallgrímsson (1807-1845). The first Icelandic romantics looked up to the medieval Eddas and foreign romantics of their time.

The most famous Icelandic writers of the 19th century are B. Grøndal, G. Thomsen, M. Johumsson, S. Thorsteinsson, S. Egilsson, J. Arnason, M. Johumsson, I. Einarsson, J. Thorodsen and others. The latter penned the first Icelandic novel, “A Boy and a Girl.”

In the 1980s, realism came to Iceland, marked by socialist, anti-clerical and internationalist tendencies. The most famous Icelandic realists are H. Hafstein, G. Paulsson, J. Stefaunsson, S. Stefansson, T. Erlingsson and others. At the turn of the century, the realists turned towards national ideas, towards idealism and even religion. This tendency is noticeable in the works of the great poet-philosopher E. Benedichtsson, the prose-spiritist E. Kvaran, the novelist J. Tresti (real name G. Magnusson) and the peasant poet and novelist G. Fridjonsson.

At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, some Icelandic writers wrote in Danish in order to expand their readership. Among them, the most famous are J. Sigurjonsson, whose drama “Mountain Eyvind” received European recognition; G. Kamban and G. Gunnarsson, who posed psychological and philosophical problems in their large-scale works “The Church on the Mountain” and “The Black Seagull”.

In the 20s of the 20th century, new directions appeared in Icelandic literature, the main of which was modernism. The most prominent lyrical modernist poets were D. Stefaunsson and T. Gudmundsson, and the most significant novelists were G. Hagalin, who depicted the life of sailors and ordinary people with great humor and gravitated toward realism and socialism, and wrote in Icelandic and Norwegian. Gudmundsson is an unsurpassed master of a romantically tinged love story.

In the mid-20s, T. Thordarson wrote his novel “Letters to Laura,” which was a new word in Icelandic literature, but the true founder of the new expressionist, surrealistic style of writing was Halldor Kiljan Laxness, a Nobel Prize winner. In the 1930s, he published three monumental novels - "Salka Valka", "Independent People" and "The Light of the World". His historical trilogy “The Bell of Iceland” enjoyed enormous popularity in Iceland and Scandinavia. In 1955, Laxness was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.

Modern Icelandic literature is characterized by a distance from traditional Icelandic literature. The most striking innovators of recent Icelandic literature are G. Danielsson, O. J. Sigyurdsson, Hallgrimur Helgason, Arnald Indridason, Thor Vilhelmsson and G. Bergsson, whose bitter, bizarre novel Thomas Jonsson, a bestseller (1966) was a scandalous success. A. Thordarson, the most important Icelandic playwright, also wrote several acclaimed novels.

One of Iceland's most famous contemporary writers is Hallgrimur Helgason, who wrote the novel Reykjavik 101, published in 1996, which was made into a film by director Balthasar Kormakur in 2000. Another famous Icelandic writer is Arnald Indridason, whose detective stories are widely known outside Iceland. Thor Vilhelmsson made a significant contribution to Icelandic literature. His story “Quickly, Quickly the Bird Spoke” attracted the interest of literary criticism, and his novel “Hot Gray Moss” was awarded the Northern Council Literary Prize.

The island's first settlers built houses from peat blocks with turf roofs (see Icelandic turf houses). Such houses allowed protection from frequent frosts in winter and rain in summer. Such houses were the so-called long houses (Il. langhús), which were characteristic of the Scandinavian peoples. Longhouses had one room, which allowed the entire house to be kept warm during the winter. Later types of such houses had several rooms, one of which was a heated bathhouse - badstova (Il. Baðstofa).

In the 18th-19th centuries, when the island's population grew rapidly, the construction of stone houses began. In the 19th century, a type of 2-3-story Icelandic house emerged from imported timber, tuff, basalt, and clad with corrugated iron.

In the early Middle Ages, wood carving was widespread in Iceland, which bore the features of both Romanesque and Norman culture; silver bowls of the 12th-13th centuries, Gothic miniatures of the 14th-15th centuries, and embroidered altar covers were decorated with traditional wicker patterns.

The traditions of modern Icelandic architecture developed after the Second World War, when Iceland became an independent country. Modern Icelandic architecture includes features of both medieval Icelandic architecture and modern world architecture. At the beginning of the 21st century, the first skyscrapers in Iceland were built in Reykjavik - Smauratorg and Hövdatorg. Iceland's most famous architects are Sigurdur Gudmundsson and Gudjon Samuelsson.

The main pearls of Icelandic architecture are the Reykjavik Cathedral, Hallgrimskirkja, Reykjavik Free Church, Akureyri Church, Perlan, Hövdi, Bessastadir and others. Sculpture is also developed in Iceland. Einar Jónsson (1874-1954) was the first and perhaps only Icelandic sculptor known outside of Iceland. His works can be seen on many streets and squares not only in Reykjavik, but also in other cities in the country. The Einar Jonsson Museum has been established, housing a collection of originals and copies of his works. Among the sculptors of the 20th century, Sigurjoun Olafsson (1908-1982) and Ausmundur Sveinsson (1893-1982) are famous. The latter worked in both figurative and abstract sculpture. The main theme of his works is the display of events of everyday life and contemporary technological achievements, as well as the mysterious world of the Icelandic sagas (for example, the monument to Sæmund the Wise and the Devil Seal near the building of the University of Iceland in Reykjavik). Another Icelandic sculptor, Rikardur Jonsson (1888-1972), became famous for his wooden carved sculptures and portraits.

The strengthening of the national liberation movement at the beginning of the 19th century became an impetus for the development of Icelandic painting. The most famous Icelandic artist is Thorarin Thorlauhsson (1867-1924), who painted exclusively landscapes. He was the first artist in Iceland to receive a government grant, and was also a member of the so-called Icelandic Flag Committee, whose members were appointed by the country's first prime minister, Hannes Petursson. Other famous Icelandic artists are Sigurdur Guðmundsson, Ásgrimur Jónsson, Guðmundur Thorsteinsson, Kristin Jónsdóttir, Jón Stefaunsson, Gerður Helgadóttir, Erro. Much of the work of Icelandic artists is exhibited in the National Gallery of Iceland, which is located in Reykjavik, and the work of such contemporary Icelandic artists as Erró, Einar Haukonarson and others can be seen even in the most famous museums in the world.

Fjóóðbúningurinn (Þjóðbúningurinn) is the collective name for the national costumes of the Icelanders, which have undergone many changes over the past centuries, but today a special commission ensures that they do not change their appearance in the future.

There are five types of Icelandic national costumes for women: kyrtill, skautbúningur, faldbúningur, peysuföt and upphlutur. The first two were created by the famous Icelandic artist Sigurd Gudmundsson for various ceremonies, and the last three have been known since the Middle Ages.

The national Icelandic costume for men exists in three versions, but only one of them, Fjóðbúningur karla, is a direct descendant of traditional Icelandic clothing. Fjoudbuningur kadla, which was worn by Icelandic men in the 17th-19th centuries, consists of woolen trousers, a jacket with buttons, which is called a treya, but can be replaced with a sidelock.

In the 20th century, a new style of clothing and the world-famous Icelandic sweater, the lopapeysa, were created. Lopapeysa originated in the mid-twentieth century when foreign imports displaced Icelandic folk goods and the Icelandic sweater was invented to use domestic wool. Most likely, the style was borrowed from the national costumes of Greenlandic women, but men also wear it as a sweater.

Until relatively recently, knitting was a craze for both men and women. In rural areas, however, it has been preserved to this day, and they joke about it that shepherds, driving their flocks, do not stop knitting for a minute, and farm wives do not let go of their knitting needles, even while fulfilling their marital duty.

Icelandic folk music, whose origins go back to ancient times, is very original. After the introduction of Christianity in Iceland, Gregorian and then Protestant chant spread, but the traditions of ancient and medieval Icelandic folk music were preserved. The main genre in medieval Icelandic music, along with church choral singing, are rims and vikivaks - heroic songs about the life of knights. The songs are sung without accompaniment, which means that folk music is exclusively vocal, although the violin and some other instruments are rarely used. The national anthem of Iceland is Ó Guð vors lands (Il. God of our country), written in 1874. Lyricist - Mattias Jochumsson, composer - Sveinbjorn Sveinbjornsson.

Professional music arose at the beginning of the 19th century, during the intensification of the Icelanders' struggle for independence. In the 20th century, Icelandic music was influenced by European music, although the influence was not strong, which allowed it to maintain its originality. After World War II, when Iceland became an independent country, Icelandic culture, including music, began to develop very quickly. In 1950, the Icelandic Symphony Orchestra was founded and the National Theater of Iceland opened. In 1993, the country's second professional orchestra, the Northern Iceland Symphony Orchestra, was created in Akureyri.

In the 1980-1990s, new musical trends developed in Iceland - jazz, rock music, pop music. Many Icelandic singers and musicians have become famous not only in their homeland, but throughout the world. Björk, The Sugarcubes, Sigur Rós, Múm, Emiliana Torrini, Seabear, Olof Arnalds, Amiina, Árstíðir, Ólafur Arnalds, Of Monsters and Men and other names are known not only in Iceland, but also abroad. The most famous composers of Iceland are Herbert Augustsson, Jon Leifs, Sveinbjorn Sveinbjornsson, Hilmar Jorn Hilmarsson and others.

Iceland has also been a participating country in the Eurovision Song Contest since 1986. The country's most successful performances in the competition were in 1999, when Iceland represented Selma Björndóttir, and in 2009, when Jóhanna Gvýdrún Jónsdóttir participated from Iceland. Both singers took second place.

Reykjavik and other major cities often host music festivals, the most famous of which are the Reykjavik Jazz Festival and Iceland Airwaves. The latter is the largest individual concert in Iceland, with 2,500 singers and musicians not only from Iceland, but also from other countries. The festival attracts spectators from all over Iceland, as well as tourists from other countries.

Although elements of theatrical art were already contained in the works of medieval Icelandic literature, the first professional performances were staged only at the beginning of the 18th century by the Latin school in Skálholt, which later worked in Reykjavik. In 1897, the Reykjavik Theater Society was created in the capital, which became the first impetus for the development of theatrical art. In the first years of the society's work, mainly plays by Icelandic authors were staged - S. Pietursson, M. Johumsson, I. Einarsson, J. Sigurjonsson and others. However, later, when Iceland became a sovereign country, plays by G. Ibsen, B. Shaw, N.V. Gogol, A.P. Chekhov and others were staged. The society was later renamed the Reykjavik City Theater, and in 1950 the National Theater was organized, on the stage of which dramatic and musical performances are staged. Operas appear in the National Theater's repertoire from time to time, and a number of Icelandic opera singers enjoy great success abroad. Among them, one of the most famous is Sigrun Hjalmtisdouttir. In 1980, the Icelandic Opera House (Íslenska óperan) was created, where 2-3 opera performances are staged every year. The Icelandic Opera House is one of the few cultural sites in the country that receive subsidies from the state budget. Outside of Reykjavik, the Akureyri Theater Company plays a major role, as well as several amateur theater companies that perform throughout the country. The number of such amateur theater groups is approximately 80, but the activities of all of them are coordinated by professional theater institutions.

In Iceland, the role of theater is so important that three out of four people in the country regularly attend plays produced by various theaters, and one of the directors of the Reykjavik City Theater, Vigdís Finnbogadóttir, was elected president of the country in 1980.

The history of Icelandic cinema begins in 1906, when the first documentary film, which lasts only three minutes, was shot in this country by Alfred Lind. That same year, the country's first cinema was opened in Reykjavik. All films made in Iceland at the beginning of the 20th century were foreign films (most often they were made in Scandinavian countries). The first full-length Icelandic film was The Adventures of Jón and Gvendar, filmed in 1923.

The Icelandic film industry is very developed, despite the limited market, and this is not only a result of the country's tax incentives for film production, but also the fact that Icelanders love the art form. Every year several documentaries and feature films are released in Iceland. The most famous directors are Balthasar Kormaucur, who directed the films “Bad Blood”, “101 Reykjavik”, “A Little Journey to Paradise”, “The Sea”; Fridrik Thor Fridriksson, who directed the films “Njala’s Saga”, “Rock in Reykjavik”, “Children of Nature”, “Falcons”; Arni Olafur Asgeirsson and others.

The biggest role in Icelandic cinematography was played by Fridrik Thor Fridriksson. In the late 1970s, Fridriksson not so much participates in the cinematic life of Reykjavik as creates it himself: he launches the first film magazine in Iceland “Kvikmundbladid”, becomes its editor-in-chief and critic, organizes the Reykjavik Film Festival (1978) and assumes the duties of managing director, opens his own film company, Icelandic Film Corporation, and, a few years later, finally moves on to creative activity and begins making films.

Icelandic cinema developed in several stages. Until the 1970s, films of various genres were made, although most of them had no artistic value. In the 1980s, historical cinema developed and documentaries were also made.

In 1984, director Hrafn Gunnlaugsson directed the historical film The Flight of the Raven, and in 1988, The Shadow of the Raven, which, although not a direct continuation of the first film, is nevertheless the next in a series of films directed by Hrafn about the Vikings of Iceland. The director's sister Tinna Gunnlaugsdottir starred in the leading female role. Subsequently, the director returned more than once to the theme of medieval Iceland and made several more films, among which the film “The White Viking”, shot in 1991, gained particular popularity.

In the 1990s, more romantic films and dramas, as well as documentaries, began to be made. In the 1990s, the biggest success of Icelandic films was Fridrik Thor Fridriksson's 1991 film Nature's Children, which was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 1992. This film also received many awards, including the “Scandinavian Film Institute Prize” in 1991, and at the end of the X Scandinavian festival “Children of Nature” was recognized as the best Scandinavian film of 1991-1993.

In addition to feature films, documentaries and cartoons are also very popular in Iceland. Two documentaries that changed Icelandic cinema were Rock in Reykjavik, made in the early 1980s by Fridriksson, and Heima, made in 2007. Both films are about Icelandic musicians, but the first one is about rock, and the second one is about the band Sigur Ros, who performs songs in the post-rock style.

In the 2000s, the first high-quality animated films and entertainment programs appeared. In 2006, the children's TV series Lazy Day appeared on screens, which is very popular in the West. The program was created by Icelandic gymnastics champion Magnus Scheving, who is also the author of the project, producer and actor, and gained popularity all over the world in the late 2000s. In 2011, a new full-length comedy computer animated film “Thor - The Chronicles of Edda” will be released.

The lifestyle and character of Icelanders is largely determined by the nature and climate of the island, as well as the historical past of the people. Icelanders are connected to nature and consider themselves part of it. That's why almost all Icelanders have large SUVs, in which they often go on vacation to their small houses outside the city. Icelanders love to travel, not abroad, but in their homeland; Every year, Icelandic families visit the historical sites and natural monuments of Iceland.

Icelanders love all types of art. Even in small towns you can see museums, galleries, theaters and cinemas. On a per capita basis, the average Icelandic city has four times as many cinemas as its European counterpart. Icelanders love to party. Having been forced for centuries to entertain themselves collectively on long winter evenings, even today they cannot stand being alone.

The climate greatly influences the lifestyle of Icelanders. On an island where half of the year is day and the other half is night, people over the centuries have come up with activities and games that help while away the long winter nights and diversify the summer days. In addition to family games, there are many types of competitions in which everyone participates - both young and old. Until recently, knitting was a real national hobby and remains so in small villages, where both women and men knit. Another common hobby is horse breeding. There is even a special breed of horse in Iceland - the Icelandic horse. Its characteristic features are short stature (up to 144 cm at the withers), stockiness and roughness, large head, shaggy dense bangs, long mane and tail.

As in all cold countries, people drink and drink a lot in Iceland, despite the fact that alcohol in this country is expensive. Before Prohibition was repealed in 1989, Icelanders produced their own alcohol. Iceland's national alcoholic drink is potato vodka, called brönnivín.

All types of sports are developed in Iceland, but Icelandic folk wrestling - glima - is especially popular. Glima, which already existed in Viking times, survives only in Iceland. Descriptions of glíma are found in several Icelandic sagas, for example, in the Grettis Saga and the Olav Tryggvason Saga. Other popular sports in Iceland include handball, chess, football, and winter sports. But Icelanders have achieved particular success in handball and chess. The Icelandic men's handball team won a silver medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. And Icelandic chess players, the most famous of whom are Fridrik Olafsson, Jon Arnason, Margeir Petursson, Helgi Olafsson, Gudmundur Sigurjonsson, and Johan Hjartarson, have repeatedly won various tournaments.

Although Icelanders consider themselves descendants of the Vikings, and the society of this ancient people was patriarchal, one of the main trends of modern Iceland is clearly visible - the feminization of society. At the beginning of 2010, striptease shows were banned in Iceland. Iceland became the first European country, with the exception of the Vatican, Andorra and several other dwarf states, where striptease is prohibited by law. Gender equality is considered one of the main features of this country. Icelandic women were among the first in Europe to vote in elections in 1915. At the same time, there were no mass demonstrations of suffragettes or discussions on this issue in the country, as in other European countries.

Iceland has legalized same-sex marriage since 2010, and the country's Prime Minister, Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir, became one of the first citizens of the country to marry a person of the same sex. In general, in Iceland the attitude towards homosexuality, as in all Scandinavian countries, is tolerant.

There is an Evangelical Lutheran Church in Iceland, whose parishioners are 92.2% of the country's residents. Unlike many Protestant denominations, Lutherans attached and attach great importance to architecture; as a result, most churches are, if not architectural masterpieces, then landmarks of the settlements in which they are located. Some of the buildings passed to the Lutherans from the Catholics (though not always peacefully), then buildings were built in the Baroque, Classicism, and, from the end of the 19th century, very actively in the Neo-Gothic style. In the 20th century, a large number of churches were built in the Art Nouveau style. Iceland also has a small number of Catholics and Orthodox Christians, as well as Muslims.

Undying pagan traditions coexist peacefully with the official religion. The ancient Scandinavian religion known as Asatru is gaining increasing popularity, not as a new trend, but as an officially recognized religion. The Asatru revival occurred in the 1970s among sheep farmers; this religion is based on harmony with nature and on the power of natural forces, represented in the form of ancient deities.

Holakirkja, one of the largest churches in the country

Followers of Asatru consider it their main duty to revive the religion of their ancestors. Their faith is based, like that of other pagans, on the deification of the forces of nature, the restoration of the traditions and folklore of the indigenous population of their country. Norse mythology is the mystical basis of Asatru. According to the beliefs of Asatru, people are filled with a divine essence that is beyond consciousness and is expressed through gods and goddesses. Since the gods are relatives of people, it is customary to honor and glorify them. The supreme god of the Asatru pantheon is Odin, whose companions are the ravens Hugin and Munin (“thinking” and “remembering”) and the wolves Geri and Freki (“greedy” and “gluttonous”), his mount is the eight-legged horse Sleipnir (Sleipnir, “sliding "). In Valhalla, Odin and his squad are served by Valkyries - maidens who determine the fate of warriors on the battlefield, choosing heroes for Valhalla. Odin's weapon is the spear Gungnir, which never misses its target and kills anyone it hits. Odin's ship - Skidblaðnir ("made of thin planks"), the fastest ship in the world, accommodating any number of warriors, which, however, can be folded and hidden in a pocket if necessary. Skidbladnir was built by the dwarves Brok and Sindri. At first it belonged to Loki, but then it was presented to the gods as compensation for the theft of the hair of the goddess Sif, Thor's wife.

Icelanders also believe in the existence of mythical creatures - trolls, elves and gnomes. However, these creatures are different from their counterparts from other Scandinavian countries. Unlike Norwegian trolls, Icelandic trolls are enormous and live in the mountains, while dwarfs live underground and in rocks. They are also called "huldufólk" - which in Icelandic means underground inhabitants or hidden inhabitants, whose world is a mirror image of the world of people, although they are no different from people. Icelanders' belief in the supernatural is very deep, and evidence of this is the numerous Icelandic fairy tales, which reflect all the richness of Icelandic culture. Unlike other European countries, pagan myths were not forgotten in Medieval Iceland; on the contrary, ancient myths and the Christian religion were syncretized (See Religious syncretism).

Unlike the fairy tales of other peoples, Icelandic fairy tales, the so-called fairy tales or fairy tales, claim to be authentic and are told as if the narrator believes in their truthfulness, and in ancient times they really believed in the reliability of the facts stated in them. In fairy tales, the stencil is not the plot, but the properties of the fairy-tale character being told about. Moreover, such fairy tales thoroughly describe the place and time of action, as well as the names of the characters, their origin, family composition and other data. The supernatural beings found in Icelandic fairy tales are generally similar to humans in all respects, although their images differ from each other, and they are all found only in the Icelandic oral tradition. Of the magical characters of pagan myths in Icelandic fairy tales, you can only meet giants called tröll (see troll) - large and strong, but stupid, human-like creatures living in caves and characterized by ferocity and greed. However, like all characters in Icelandic fairy tales, trolls are not completely evil or good characters; Some fairy tales describe how a troll becomes a forever loyal friend when a favor is performed for him. Trolls are afraid of daylight because when daylight comes they turn into rocks. Often Icelandic tales tell of female trolls, or "skess", fierce and stupid, but child-loving and man-loving creatures who kidnap men and turn them into trolls if the kidnapped one does not manage to escape.

There are many Icelandic fairy tales where the main character is a sorcerer. This is most often a priest, a pastor, sometimes even a bishop. The most famous of these sorcerers is Samund the Wise - a typical good sorcerer. There are several dozen fairy tales where he is the main character. In some fairy tales, the main characters are hidden inhabitants who often come into contact with people. For example, they ask for milk for a child, or ask for help for a woman in labor - it cannot be resolved until a human hand lies on it.

One of the main holidays in Iceland is New Year. During the New Year, Icelanders light bonfires, sing and dance around them. After the New Year, Icelanders celebrate the most important traditional holiday - Yule. This holiday has many names. It is called the "Bonfire Festival" because on this day Icelanders burn large bonfires in special places; “Mother of all nights”, since the holiday is dedicated to the diss - goddesses of fate, “Trettaundinn”, which translates as “thirteenth day” (symbolizing the thirteenth day after Christmas). Yule traditions are close to Christmas traditions. On Yule, they decorate the Christmas tree and put gifts under it. There has long been a belief in Iceland that on this day you must wear new woolen clothes, otherwise the Yule Cat will come and take away the festive dinner, expensive things or even children.

Another winter holiday is Valentine's Day. Although this holiday is Christian and church, the Icelanders added a national flavor to it. In Iceland, Valentine's Day is dedicated to Odin's son Vali, but this holiday, like everywhere else in the world, is related to the romance of love. In Iceland, there is a funny custom: on this day, girls hang firebrands on guys’ necks, and in return they try to hang pebbles on the girls’ necks. The meaning of this ritual is easier to understand if you consider that to light a fire on Vali's Day, you must strike a spark by striking a stone against a stone.

One of the newest holidays is Beer Day. It is celebrated on March 1 - on this day the beer law was adopted, which was in force in this country until 1989. This act abolished Prohibition, which had been in force in the country for almost a century. Beer Day is celebrated in bars and restaurants. The parties continue until the morning. Concerts and a special beer festival are organized.

Lutheran Easter is one of the most, if not the most important holiday for Icelanders. At Easter, Icelanders bake pies and make chocolate eggs. The only Icelandic tradition associated with Easter is the belief that on Easter the sun dances, moving in different directions, but in order to witness this spectacle, the date of Easter must coincide with the date when Jesus was resurrected.

Sumardagurinn Firsti - the holiday of the first day of summer is celebrated on a special scale. There are a lot of beliefs associated with this day, as it is a pagan holiday. For example, it was believed that if there was frost on the night of a holiday, it was for the best. This phenomenon was called “summer frozen to winter.” It was also believed that the layer of cream on the milk in the new year would correspond to the layer of ice that formed on the water that night. So if the night was frosty, then the milk would be fatty.

On June 21, Icelanders celebrate midsummer - a midsummer festival. This holiday is also pagan and has been preserved from the times when the ancient Vikings divided the year into two parts - summer and winter and celebrated mid-summer and mid-winter. On this day, the Summer Solstice Festival is organized in modern Iceland. There are many traditions associated with this day. For example, Icelanders believe that the shortest night of the year has magical powers and can cure 19 different diseases, so they hold religious events related to this belief.

Vetrnetr - Celebration of the first day of winter or Winter Day. On this day, Icelanders burn bonfires and hold various competitions. In modern Iceland, many festivals are organized in Vätrnetr, the most famous of which are Iceland Airwaves and the Youth Arts Festival.

In December, Icelanders celebrate the Catholic Day of St. Nicholas and the Nativity of Christ. In Iceland, as in many other countries, the holiday of the Nativity of Christ was introduced to replace the winter solstice, on which sacrifices were made. Although this holiday is Christian, there are many beliefs associated with it. For example, Icelanders believe that on this day the elves move to another place and those who wanted to take possession of their wealth stood at crossroads at night and waited for the elves to bargain with them for as long as possible - until dawn came and the elves will disappear into the air, leaving all goodness on earth.

The main public holidays are Iceland's Independence Day, which is celebrated on December 1, President's Day of Iceland and Proclamation Day of the Icelandic Republic, which is celebrated on June 17.

Despite the fact that the nature of Iceland is scarce, Icelandic cuisine is by no means monotonous; on the contrary, it is very rich. Vegetables and fruits are brought to Iceland from other countries, and carrots, cabbage, potatoes, cucumbers and tomatoes are grown on the island. The cuisine in the countryside is conservative, but in the cities fast food is gaining more and more popularity. However, there are also restaurants in the cities that serve traditional Icelandic dishes. Traditional dishes include: surmjoulk (local sour milk); cod cheeks; pickled seal fins; fried puffin meat; bovine eggs soaked in curdled milk; puffin eggs, rotten shark meat (Hákarl), etc. Coffee is very popular in Iceland. There is even a holiday in honor of this drink. Interestingly, in a cafe you only have to pay for the first cup of coffee.

Due to the global economic crisis that hit Iceland extremely hard, the country's conservative government was forced to resign on January 26, 2009. During the transition period until the next elections, the country's government will be headed by Iceland's Minister of Social Security, 66-year-old Jóhanna Sigurdardóttir. With the change of power, the country's foreign policy also changed.

Same-sex marriage was legalized in 2010.

In the summer of 2009, Iceland applied to join the EU.

In December 2010, economic recovery and slight GDP growth were observed.

Reykjavik is the northernmost capital of the world.

Vatnajökull is a glacier in Iceland, the largest glacier in Europe.

The Parliament of Iceland (Althing) is considered the oldest existing in the world.

Iceland is the largest volcanic island.

More than 10% of Iceland's territory is covered with glaciers (12 thousand km²).

A popular dish in Iceland (hakarl) is nothing more than rotten shark meat.

Hekla Volcano is the largest volcano in Europe.

Dettifoss Waterfall is the most powerful waterfall in Europe. Its height is 40 m and its width is 100 m.

The largest and longest river in Iceland is Tjoursau (237 km).

Icelanders don't have surnames. In Iceland, a person is called by his own name, given at birth, with the addition of his father's (sometimes mother's) name, which corresponds to the Russian patronymic. For example, the Icelandic singer "Björk Gudmundsdóttir" is literally "Björk, daughter of Gudmund", and the President of Iceland "Ólafur Ragnar Grimsson" is "Ólafur Ragnar, son of Grim".

The island's calling card is its bizarre volcanic landscapes with numerous tiny lakes, rivers and waterfalls. Dozens of active and dormant volcanoes are scattered throughout the country, and numerous geyser fields and mud volcanoes give the local landscape an absolutely fantastic look.

The capital of Iceland, Reykjavik, was deservedly declared one of the cultural capitals of the world in 2000.

Near the city there is the huge extinct volcano Esya (906 m) - an excellent place for trekking and active recreation. Even further south is the large Lake Blaulone or Glacier Lagoon, connected by a strait to the ocean. Here, among the unique stone-moss wastelands with relict vegetation and giant glacial tongues, there are excellent walking routes that leave the feeling of traveling through deserted rocky deserts from the times “when the planet was still young.” 100 km east of Reykjavik, at the foot of the Langjökull glacier, lies a unique valley of geysers - Haukadalur. It is here that the famous Big Geyser is located, whose three-meter crater is either filled with superheated, highly mineralized water of a striking turquoise color, or dries up, exposing the bottom of tuff rocks. The main feature of the Big Geyser is the series of ten-minute steam eruptions, rising to a height of 40-60 meters, which, unfortunately, have recently become more and more rare. There are dozens of other geysers around.

The capital of Iceland, Reykjavik (“Smoky Bay”), was deservedly declared one of the cultural capitals of the world in 2000. This small and cozy city, surrounded on three sides by the sea and having a development completely uncharacteristic for the capital, is considered one of the most unusual cities in the world. The city centre, known as "Old Reykjavík", is a vast green expanse of lawns and lakes, interspersed with traditional, older houses that retain many features of early Scandinavian architecture. Here you can still find sheepfolds and stables attached to the main building in which people live. Naturally, cattle have not been kept in them for many years and most of them have been converted into shops and cafes, but the former purpose of these buildings is easily guessed. Among the ancient buildings of Reykjavik, the Parliament House (1881) and the old Government Building (18th century), located between the harbor and the lake, are interesting.

The city itself is located on the site where the first permanent settlement on the island was built by the Vikings of Ingolfur Arnarson (874). There are still no industrial facilities or smoking chimneys in Reykjavik (houses are heated with water from hot thermal springs), which makes the air of this northernmost capital of the world amazingly clean.

Modern Reykjavik stretches east of the old city. Interesting are the National Gallery of Iceland, the National Museum with its unique historical collections and the Reykjavik City Art Museum. Just behind the National Museum is the Arni Magnusson Institute, which contains unique ancient books with traditional sagas, as well as extensive collections of historical works. The Árbær Folk Museum displays a number of old Reykjavík houses, restored in the original manner - a church in the traditional Icelandic style with a turf roof, as well as farmhouses from the 19th and early 20th centuries. One of the main attractions is the central church of Reykjavik - Hallgrimskirkja, which, in addition to its original architectural form, has a unique organ in the Art Nouveau style. In front of the church there is a monument to the Vikings - the discoverers of America. Other attractions include a small Botanical Garden, a recreational park, and a number of museums dedicated to the activities of leading Icelandic artists.

The city has a large number of swimming pools, including outdoor ones, with water temperatures up to +27 C, many nightclubs, discos, a botanical garden, drama, opera and ballet theaters and cinemas, as well as a charming green area along the banks of the Ellidaar River flowing through the eastern part of the capital, considered one of the richest Icelandic salmon rivers.

Near the city there is the huge extinct volcano Esya (906 m) - an excellent place for trekking and active recreation. Even further south is the large Lake Blaulone or Glacier Lagoon, connected by a strait to the ocean. Here, among the unique stone-moss wastelands with relict vegetation and giant glacial tongues, there are excellent walking routes that leave the feeling of traveling through deserted rocky deserts from the times “when the planet was still young.” 100 km. East of Reykjavik, at the foot of the Langjökull glacier, lies a unique valley of geysers - Haukadalur. It is here that the famous Big Geyser is located, whose three-meter crater is either filled with superheated, highly mineralized water of a striking turquoise color, or dries up, exposing the bottom of tuff rocks. The main feature of the Big Geyser is the series of ten-minute steam eruptions, rising to a height of 40-60 meters, which, unfortunately, have recently become more and more rare. There are dozens of other geysers around.

No less interesting is the Hengil area near Reykjavik, whose hot water is currently used to heat the capital and numerous outdoor swimming pools. In the valley east of the geyser fields is the site of the formation of Icelandic statehood - described in the sagas of Þingvöllir (fields of Thing), where meetings of the inhabitants of the island were held at the dawn of its settlement.

The geyser fields themselves are one of the country's calling cards. In total, more than 250 groups of them were discovered here, including more than 7 thousand individual hot springs - this is the largest number of geysers per unit area in the world. Even the word “geyser” itself is of Icelandic origin and means “streaming.” The vast geyser field of Haudakalur lies in the south of Iceland, where the country's largest geyser, the Geyser (Great Geyser), is located, but only the Strokkur geyser erupts here more or less periodically. Around it there are many outlets of underground hot water in the form of bottomless wells filled to the brim with amazingly blue transparent water. No less colorful are the areas of the Torfa glacier to the east of the Hekla volcano, the Kverkfjöll volcano, the area of the Grim Lakes near the Vatna glacier, the areas of Nama, the Kerlingar and Kverk mountains, Krisu Bay, the geothermal fields of Kjölur, Landmannalaugar, Nesjavellir, Onavfelsnes, Reikir and others, as well as hot springs and fields of “colored earth” near the city of Hveragerdi. Some springs throw water onto the surface, superheated in underground “boilers” to a temperature of about +750 C. For example, the largest hot spring in Iceland, Deildartunguhver, produces more than 150 liters of boiling water every second. Local residents use underground boiling water to heat their homes and evaporate salt from sea water, as well as to create numerous hot water pools, so popular in the local cold climate.

"Blue Lagoon" is a unique geothermal lake, saturated with natural salts, where you can swim at any time of the year - the water temperature here is always above +16 C. In the vicinity of the lagoon, there are interesting lava fields, a geothermal power plant with a swimming pool, a picturesque rocky coastline and a bird colony. After driving east from the Blue Lagoon along the lava-covered Reykjanes Peninsula, and visiting the fishing village of Grindavik, you should go northwest to the settlement of Reykholt, where Snorri Sturluson, the famous Icelandic poet, writer and politician, author of the famous history of the Norwegian kings, lived for a long time - " Circle of the earth."

The country's waterfalls are no less interesting. The most beautiful of them are the “waterfall of the gods” Goudafoss, Gullfoss (“golden waterfall”) on the Hvitau River, near the Big Geyser, Skógarfoss and the “falling waterfall” Dehtifoss in the north of the island. The highest is considered to be Hauifoss, located on the Fossad River (height 130 m). The most beautiful waterfalls in Iceland - Hroenfossar ("lava falls"), are located next to Reykholt and got their name because they flow in cascades from under the lava field and rush into the river with a surprisingly blue color (from mineral salts dissolved in the water).

The interior of the island is an almost lifeless plateau, where you can enjoy absolute silence or observe the life of the relict natural world of Iceland. Also, these places are covered in the romance of thousands of sagas and legends, in which each site is given some kind of magical property.

In the East Borgarfjord, in the far east of the country, is the rock Aulvaborg, which, according to Icelandic tales, is the home of the Icelandic king and queen of the elves, as well as their people. Every year, an elven ship allegedly sails from here to Norway to visit the Norwegian king of the elves. Kerlingaskar Pass ("witch's gorge"), located at the western foot of Kerlingarfjell Mountain, is believed to be the home of evil forces, and the nearby lake is believed to be home to the local equivalent of the Loch Ness monster.

The city of Akureyri is considered the northern capital of Iceland and is located on the shores of the beautiful Eyjafjord. Nearby is the ice-free Lake Mývatn ("mosquito lake", one of the richest lakes in the northern hemisphere), considered one of the wonders of the world, as well as the Gullfoss waterfall - one of the most beautiful and picturesque places on the island. Here you can climb the craters of the Graubok and Hverfell volcanoes, from where a most picturesque view opens up, visit the ice caves of Kverkfjöll and Nyomaskaro, and also get acquainted with the unique nature of the island, which, despite its apparent scarcity at first glance, represents one of the most ancient and natural complexes touched by man. From Akureyri there are ferries to the “island near the Arctic Circle” Grimsey, considered one of the most “extreme” places inhabited by humans, also famous for its wild landscapes and seabird colonies.

And, of course, one of the main attractions of the country is the volcanoes. In terms of their number per unit area, the country confidently ranks first in the world. Dressed in glaciers or “flaunting” multi-colored slopes, visible from almost anywhere in the country, these “giants” shape the landscape of almost the entire country. “Icelandic Fuji” Hekla and the colorful Kverkfjöll, the giant crack of the Laki and Helgafell volcano on the island of Heimaey, which almost turned the once prosperous port of Vestmannaeyjar into the “Icelandic Pompeii”, the picturesque Graubok and “island creator” Surtsey, as well as many dozens and hundreds of volcanic cracks and calderas, extinct and mud volcanoes and volcanoes - these are the “titans” that literally created Iceland.

Iceland is considered one of the world centers for sport fishing and extreme tourism. There are enormous opportunities for rock climbing, hiking and “safari” on every conceivable type of vehicle, horseback riding (the local horse breed, by the way, is considered one of the hardiest in the world and has long been exported to many countries), trout and salmon fishing in rivers, streams and lakes, a kind of diving in mineral reservoirs and under the “sole” of icebergs, as well as more traditional sports in all corners of the country and all year round.

Sources

Wikipedia – The Free Encyclopedia, WikiPedia

vokrugsveta.ru - Around the World

countries.turistua.com - The best search for tours

guide.travel.ru - All about tourism

Economic and geographical characteristics of Iceland. Iceland is

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Geographical location of Iceland. Climate and nature of Iceland.

State structure of Iceland.

Administrative and governmental structure of Iceland.

Population of Iceland.

Economy of Iceland. Industry and economy of Iceland.

History of Iceland.

Geographical location of Iceland

Geography of Iceland. Map, geographical location, population, climate of Iceland. Industry and economy of Iceland, resources, symbols and anthem of Iceland.

Geographical location of Iceland. Climate and nature of Iceland.

State structure of Iceland.

Administrative and governmental structure of Iceland.

Population of Iceland.

Economy of Iceland. Industry and economy of Iceland.

History of Iceland.

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