Bosnia and Herzegovina is a country. History of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina has the most complex government system in Europe and many political parties. All this is the result of the country’s historical development, especially in the 1990s.

According to the Yugoslav Constitution of 1946, Bosnia and Herzegovina was one of the six republics of the country.
According to the 1995 Constitution currently in force, the democratic state of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of two entities: Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina(Muslim-Croatian) and Republika Srpska(RS). Each of these formations has its own president, parliament And government. Government bodies at the federal level include the Presidium, the Parliamentary Assembly and the Council of Ministers.

State system of Bosnia and Herzegovina

On April 5, 1992, the country gained independence from Yugoslavia.
Capital- Sarajevo.
Largest cities- Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Zenica, Tuzla, Mostar.
official languages- Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian.
Form of government- confederal republic.
Collective head of state- Presidium of Bosnia and Herzegovina, consisting of 3 people: a Serb, a Bosnian and a Croat.
Supreme legislative body- Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Supreme body of executive power- Council of Ministers.
Leading political parties:
Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina (national, predominantly Bosnian);
Union of Independent Social Democrats (predominantly Serbian);
Democratic Action Party (Bosnian);
Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina (predominantly Bosnian);
Croatian Democratic Community of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Croatian);
Serbian Democratic Party (Serbian);
Party of Democratic Progress (Serbian).
Territory- 51,197 km². About 90% of the territory is occupied by mountains.
Population- 3,839,737 people.
Currency– convertible mark (equal to 0.51 euros).
Administrative division(approved in 1995) - Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Republika Srpska, Brčko District.
Economy- The main branch of the economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina, even despite the infertile soils, is agriculture. The main crops are tobacco, sugar beets, corn and wheat. Fruits (plums) are grown. There is sheep farming. Wood from mountain forests is extracted.
As part of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina accounted for 99% of iron ore production and 100% of coke production, 40% of coal production, 2/3 of iron production and 50% of steel production in all of Yugoslavia. Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked first in Yugoslavia in timber production and played a prominent role in the chemical industry (during the SFRY, only Bosnia and Herzegovina had the production of soda (Lukavac) and chlorine). Enterprises in the mining, metallurgical, and oil refining industries are gradually being restored in the country, and production in the textile industry, components for automobiles, the aviation industry, and household appliances is growing.
Predominant religions- Islam (43.7%), Orthodoxy (31.4%), Catholicism (17.3%).

State symbols

Flag- approved on February 4, 1998. This flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina was one of three presented to the parliament appointed by the UN High Representative. All flags used the same colors: blue is the color of the United Nations, but it was replaced by a darker one. The stars symbolize Europe. The triangle symbolizes the country's three main population groups (Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs) and the outline of the country on the map.

Coat of arms- is a blue shield with a yellow triangle. The triangle symbolizes the country's three main population groups (Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs) and the outline of the country on the map. White stars symbolize Europe.

Natural attractions of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Large national park Sutjeska is located in the highlands of southern Bosnia. This is the oldest national park in Republika Srpska. It was created in 1962 and covers an area of ​​17,250 hectares. The nearest city is Foca. On the territory of this national park there is one of the four relict forests in Europe - Perucica. It is also home to the highest mountain in the Republika Srpska - Maglic (2386 m above sea level). Sutjeska National Park is part of the Federation of European National Parks EUROPARC. 66% of the national park is covered by dense forests. There are also meadows and mountain pastures on a plateau at 1600 m above sea level. In total, the park grows 2600 plant species And 100 types of mushrooms. Separate natural wealth represents relict forest Perucica, where beeches and black pines grow, some of them are more than 300 years old.
This national park is home to bears, wolves, chamois, wild boars, martens, wild goats, etc. It is also home to about 300 species of birds, with 61 species nesting there.
In 1943, the famous Battle of Sutjeska, or Fifth German offensive. It is considered one of the hardest battles of World War II on the territory of Yugoslavia. In memory of this, a monument to the partisans who fell in battle was erected in Tientishte, which is part of the “Valley of Heroes” memorial complex.

"Valley of Heroes"- a memorial complex dedicated to the Battle of Sutjeska, which took place from May 15 to June 15, 1943. The memorial complex was officially opened in 1974. Youth groups from all over Yugoslavia actively took part in its construction. In 2011, the complex was taken under UNESCO protection.

Natural park on the Trebižat River. Dropping from a 10-meter height with foamy white streams, it looks very picturesque and delights with its beauty and harmony. Poetically, it is called a fan open over a cliff.
The waterfall is a popular tourist spot, but it is secluded and below it is a lake with beaches that are crowded and noisy.

Mountain system in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula. It is an alternation of plateaus, basins, ridges and river valleys, sometimes wide and sometimes canyon-like. The Dinaric Highlands are one of the few areas in Europe where natural forests remain: broadleaf- in low mountains (up to 1200-1500 m) and spruce-fir- in the middle mountains. The subalpine belt is represented by thickets mountain pine.
Fauna of the Dinaric Highlands: roe deer, chamois, wolf, lynx, brown bear, peregrine falcon, griffon vulture. The fauna of karst caves is very diverse bats, cave fish And crustaceans.

The waterfalls located on the Pliva River at its confluence with the Vrbas River are incredibly picturesque. Water flows form several cascades. Dropping from a height of several meters, they flow, forming several branches.
The height of the water fall is 30 m. However, during the Bosnian War this area was flooded, which led to a decrease in the height of the waterfall. But he's still handsome.

A not very large mountain located in the central part of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Its height is only 1280 m above sea level. There are no high peaks or cliffs covered with snow, which makes this peak not very popular among tourists.

But the main attraction of Mount Hum is the huge white cross, more than 33 m high. It is visible from anywhere in Mostar, even at night, thanks to the bright lighting. This cross was erected in 2000 as a religious symbol of the Catholic faith in Mostar and has since been a source of controversy and controversy between Muslims and Catholics in the city.

In spring, the entire mountain is covered with bizarre flowers of all colors and becomes a magical carpet.

Radobla River

The Radobla River is a small picturesque river flowing through the city of Mostar in Bosnia and Herzegovina. During the hot period it is nothing interesting, but after heavy rains it turns into a stormy and noisy stream. The riverbed is almost entirely artificial - in the Middle Ages, Radobla powered numerous water mills, some of which have survived to this day.
The so-called river is thrown across the river, which most attracts tourists.

Vrelo Bosne Nature Park

Located in the central part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, near the village of Ilidzha at the foot of Mount Igman.

The park was founded during the Austro-Hungarian rule. During the Bosnian War, the park fell into disrepair; local residents cut down trees and drowned their houses with them. In 2000, thanks to the work of local activists and the help of international organizations, the park was restored.
The Bosnia River originates in the territory of Vrelo Bosne; there are many islands, streams and waterfalls, and picturesque wooden bridges in the park. Here are mineral and thermal springs equipped for spa treatments.

Lake Yablanitsa

This is an artificial reservoir created in 1953 in the central part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, near the city of Mostar. It was created after the construction of a dam on the Neretva River, which is surrounded by mountain peaks. Yablanitsa is an elongated body of water up to 3 km wide.
A popular place among tourists and residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Here you can enjoy the beauty and serenity of nature, swim, go boating and, of course, go fishing.

Other sights of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Military tunnel in Sarajevo

One of the reminders of the siege of Sarajevo during the Bosnian war of 1992-1995. It was built by the residents of Sarajevo in order to get out of the besieged city, as well as to carry humanitarian aid through it. Tunnel length - 720 m. It connected the Butmir and Dobrynya districts. The tunnel led to Sarajevo airport, which was supposed to be neutral territory under the control of the United Nations.
20 meters of the tunnel, preserved to this day, are part of a museum created by the Kolar family.

The tower is located in the business district of Sarajevo and is a symbol of the city. This is one of the tallest structures in the Balkans. Its height together with the antenna is 172 m. Construction of the tower lasted 3 years (2006-2009).
This is a beautiful modern building of an unusual shape with mirrored walls. The skyscraper consists of 41 floors and is equipped with 38 elevators. At an altitude of 150 m there is an observation deck from which you can admire the city.

Historical center of Sarajevo

It is called. This is the oldest part of the city, which was built up from the period of Ottoman rule until the beginning of the twentieth century, during the years of Austro-Hungarian rule. The architecture is characterized by a combination of eastern and western traditions. The eastern part of the Old Town was built during the Ottoman period, and the western part during the rule of Austria-Hungary.
The heart of the Old Town is the district Bascarsija, in the center of which there is a square (Golubinaya) with a large fountain. Around the square and in the cozy narrow streets of the Old Town, as hundreds of years ago, master craftsmen work. All crafts of ancient times are called “old occupations” here.

Cathedral of the Sacred Heart of Jesus

The largest cathedral in Bosnia and Herzegovina, located in Sarajevo. Cathedral is one of the main architectural attractions and is a Catholic center. It was built in 1889 by the architect Josip Vansa in a neo-Gothic style with elements of Romanesque architecture, following the example of Notre Dame Cathedral.
During the siege of Sarajevo, the cathedral was damaged, but quickly restored by the city authorities. Its building is a symbol of the city and is used in the flag and seal of Sarajevo.

Opened in 1951. Covers an area of ​​about 8.5 hectares. During the siege of Sarajevo in 1992-1995. he was completely devastated. Some animals died of starvation, and some became victims of artillery or sniper fire. The last animal, a bear, died in 1995.

In 1999, animals began to arrive again at the zoo, and expansion and reconstruction of the zoo began in order to attract visitors. Currently, the Sarajevo Zoo has about 38 species of animals: monkeys, llamas, ostriches, snakes, deer and elk, buffalo, various waterfowl and other bird species, black bear and many others. The zoo has purchased a new terrarium and is preparing 1,000 square meters to house pumas, lions and meerkats.

It was created in 1888 and is located in Sarajevo. The building was created in the Italian Renaissance style. The pavilions housed the departments of archaeology, ethnography, natural history and a library.
The museum was closed for some time due to serious damage received during the last war. It opened a few years later, but closed again on October 4, 2012 due to funding problems.

House-museum of traditional Bosnian architecture from the Ottoman period. This is a real residential building that belonged to the Svrzo family. It was in honor of its last owners that the museum received its name. The main goal of the museum is to give visitors an idea of ​​the culture and way of life of wealthy Muslim families living in the city from the late 13th to the 19th centuries.

A classic example of Bosnian architecture before the Europeanization of the region. Constructed from mud bricks and wood. Of particular interest to visitors is the interior of the house: it consists of two parts - male and female, which was typical for the period of the Ottoman Empire. You can explore the courtyard, fountain and garden.

History of the country

Traces of human presence on the modern territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina date back to 14-12 millennia BC. – this is evidenced, for example, by an engraving in the Badanj cave in Herzegovina.

In the picture: Engraving in Badanj Cave
Around 1000 BC. e. came to Bosnian territory Illyrians who became the main inhabitants of the country. From the 5th century BC e. The Celts began to invade this region from the north. In the 1st century BC e. The territory of Bosnia was conquered by the Romans and turned into a province under the name Illyricum, after the name of the people who inhabited it.
From then until the 5th century. the province belonged to the Romans. In the 5th century The Roman Empire collapsed, forming two new ones - Western Roman Empire And Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantium. Illyricum went to Byzantium. By that time, many different tribes and peoples had penetrated the Balkan Peninsula through the Danube, among which were Slavs. They actively settled throughout the peninsula and by the 7th century. occupied Bosnian territory, leaving the Byzantines only fortified cities, which were difficult to take. The population of the western Balkans became Slavicized.
In the Middle Ages, Bosnia was the last of the regions of the southern Slavs to create its own state and the last to convert to the Christian faith, since it was geographically isolated from its neighbors, which allowed its culture to develop in its own way.
In 1203, the Pope called on Bosnian religious elders to reject Bogomilism and embrace Catholicism. In 1250, after a series of crusades against the Bogomils, Hungary re-subordinated Bosnia. For a hundred years Bosnia became a Catholic country, subject to Hungary, until 1377 Tvrtko I Kotromanic did not declare himself the Bosnian king.

By the end of the 14th century. Bosnia became a large Slavic state with access to the Adriatic Sea. Now Croatia, Dalmatia and the port of Hum on the Adriatic were subordinate to Bosnia. The country's population has grown greatly and become multinational. After the death of King Tvrtko I, the kingdom fell into decline.
In 1463, most of Bosnia fell under Turkish rule, and in 1482 Herzegovina also submitted to the Turks. As part of the Ottoman Empire, these two regions were united, and a single vilayat of Bosnia was formed. After a series of uprisings against the Ottoman Empire, the Congress of Berlin took place in 1878, at which Bosnia and Herzegovina was transferred to the control of Austria-Hungary. At first, Bosnia and Herzegovina was actively developing: railways were built, banks were founded, factories and factories were opened - industrialization began. But a semi-colonial regime was established in the province. The political confrontation between Croats and Serbs intensified, as they wanted to annex these territories to Croatia and Serbia.

In 1903 he ascended the Serbian throne Peter I Karageorgievich, I king of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. In Serbia, as a result of a surge of nationalism, the Bosnian crisis began. In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina - all of Europe was on the brink of world war. IN 1914. the Sarajevo assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand marked the beginning First World War.
After the end of the First World War and the collapse of Austria-Hungary, Bosnia and Herzegovina found itself part of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, which united with the Kingdom of Serbia, creating a new state in the Balkans - Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Bosnian Muslims began to fight for the autonomy of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

In 1929 Alexander I Karageorgievich established a royal dictatorship and renamed the Kingdom of SHS to Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Bosnia and Herzegovina was divided into several Banovin(administrative-territorial unit). In 1939, the autonomous Banovina Croatia was created from the Banovinas with a predominantly Croatian population.
During Second World War Germany and its allies occupied Yugoslavia and divided it into several parts. Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the "Independent Croatian State". After the end of the war Bosnia and Herzegovina received the status of a Republic within the Yugoslav Federation, which he created according to the Soviet model.

Until 1966, the leadership structures were dominated by Serbs, who persecuted Croat and Bosnian nationalists, however, after 1966, Broz Tito began to rely on his proteges, regardless of their ethnic origin. He created conditions for the development and prosperity of the Bosniak communities of Bosnia and Herzegovina as a price for compliance with his regime.
IN 1992. The Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence and was first recognized by the countries of the European Union and the United States, then other states began to recognize it. As a result of the outbreak of war, the state collapsed. The EU and the UN developed a plan to resolve the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina: the country was divided into 10 regions, homogeneous in their national composition.

Bosnian Serbs led by Radovan Karadzic returned the territory taken from the Muslims. The Croats and Bosniaks agreed to this, but the Serbs refused to follow it. In August 1995, US Air Force aircraft began bombing positions of Bosnian Serb troops. As a result, Bosniaks and Croats recognized the autonomy of the Serbian community within Bosnia and Herzegovina. In December 1995, the conflict was resolved. But even after the signing of these agreements, the situation in the region remained extremely unstable.
The International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia was established in The Hague by the UN Security Council. In 1997, tendencies towards cooperation between the Serbian and Bosnian authorities began to appear, but this was the result of international pressure on Bosnia and Herzegovina. The integrity of the state is ensured by NATO troops.

The earliest archaeological finds found on the territory of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina date back to the period 14-12 millennium BC. AND history of Bosnia and Herzegovina, in this regard, can boast of such artifacts of this period as the famous “Horse Pierced by Arrows,” a bas-relief made on a stone fragment found in the Badanj cave, which is located near the Herzegovinian town of Stolac.

No less remarkable finds marked such historical periods of Bosnia and Herzegovina as the Neolithic, as well as the centuries of copper, bronze and iron. However, the most notable point is story this state was the period from the 5th to the 7th centuries, when the collapsed Roman Empire formed the Western Roman Empire and its eastern part, better known to us as Byzantium, to which the territory of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina went, and then this state was called Illyricum. During this period in this territory, which was partly facilitated geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina For the first time, tribes of Slavs appeared, who, having assimilated among the indigenous population, led to the fact that a significant part of the Balkan Peninsula received modern Slavic roots.

But more importantly, they began to talk about the same Bosnia and Herzegovina on the European continent in the 14th century, when in 1377, when one of the local princes, Tvrtko I Kotromanich, proclaimed himself king of Bosnia and began to expand his possessions right up to the Adriatic Sea, which gave the state the significance of an economically developed Slavic state. However, the death of Tvrtko I Kotromanic led to the resumption of feudal strife and the formation in 1449 of the independent Duchy of Herzegovina, the founder of which was a local feudal lord named Stefan Vuksic, who proclaimed himself duke and ruler of the territory under his control called Herzegovina.

The Ottoman period in the history of Bosnia and Herzegovina refers to the longest and most dramatic period, which began in 1463, when a significant part of the Balkan Peninsula, including Bosnia and Herzegovina, came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. And it was during this period that mass Islamization of the population began in these territories, the consequences of which left a rather deep imprint on the modern history of many states in this region.

After the economic and political weakening and collapse of the Ottoman Empire, Bosnia and Herzegovina came under the protectorate of the Austro-Hungarian state, which was legally secured by the decision of the so-called Berlin Congress of 1878. And from that moment on, the economic and social prosperity of these territories began. With the support of Austro-Hungarian capital, factories, factories and railways were built in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

During the First World War, the same “Islamic” factor played its negative role when the Serbian king Peter I Karadjordjevic, who ascended the throne in 1903, demanded the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Serbia, as territories that historically belonged to Serbia. And this kind of policy led not only to the Bosnian political crisis, but also to the outbreak of World War I, after the tragic assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914 by a Serbian extremist.

The fate of Bosnia and Herzegovina after the end of the First World War was not the best. After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, and a little later in 1929, by the decision of King Alexander I Karadjordjevic, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was formed within which there was no talk of autonomy for Bosnia and Herzegovina .

After the end of World War II Bosnia and Herzegovina received the status of a small autonomy within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which was led by the pro-communist regime of Josip Broz Tito, who in his years led the Yugoslav resistance to the Nazi occupiers.

However, the death of the permanent President of the FRY Josip Broz Tito in 1980 led not only to the disintegration of Yugoslavia into a number of independent republics, but also to the beginning of the bloody Bosnian War, which was clearly religious in nature. But fortunately, this whole rather painful process reached its logical conclusion in March 1992, when, according to a plan developed by the EU and the UN, as well as a multilateral agreement signed in Dayton (Ohio, USA) in 1995, the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina was resolved. And a new state, created on the basis of the principles of the federation, Bosnia and Herzegovina, appeared on the map of Europe.

Capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina

By its name and appearance on the map capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina Sarajevo owes its name to the Ottoman Empire, which founded the city of Sarajevo on its newly conquered lands of Bosnia in 1462, derived from the Turkish word “saray” - a palace, which received the status of the administrative center of this region in 1639. At the same time, Sarajevo received the status of the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1945 to the present.

Population of Bosnia and Herzegovina

There is no official information about the census of the population living in this territory in official sources, since after the end of the Bosnian conflict, such sociological activities were not carried out. However, according to later information population of Bosnia and Herzegovina is approximately four and a half million inhabitants. Moreover, slightly less than half of this population, namely 43.6% are Bosnians, 31.4% are Serbs and 17.3% are Croats.

State of Bosnia and Herzegovina

According to the same Dayton Peace Agreement, signed in 1995, state of Bosnia and Herzegovina(Federacija Bosne i Hercegovine or Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina), as a federation was formed along with the Republic of Serbia (Republika Srpska or Republic of Srpska) and the District of Brčko (Distrikt Brčko or District Brčko). Which in turn are divided into a number of cantons formed from national communities.

Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina

According to the Constitution adopted by Parliament politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina is formed on the basis of a multi-party system and the possibility of making free choice at all levels of government, starting from the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Parliament and ending with municipal self-government bodies. The Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of three representatives of the nationalities that form the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina, namely representatives of the Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats. The term of this elected body is determined by the Constitution to be four years, followed by re-election of representatives of the Presidium.

The Parliamentary Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina is a legislative body and consists of two chambers: the Upper House of People's Representatives, 5 members from each of the three communities and the House of Representatives of the Communities, 14 people from each three communities. And the executive body of the state is the Council of Ministers, which consists of nine specialized ministries that determine the basic economic policy in the main directions of the country's economy.

The local government bodies are: the cantonal assembly (skupština) and its government, as the executive power (vlada) and at the community level, this is the community council (Općinsko vijeće) and the head of the community (Načelnik općine).

Language of Bosnia and Herzegovina

According to the Dayton Agreement, the official language of Bosnia and Herzegovina It is equally represented by the languages ​​of the three main nationalities living in this territory, namely Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian. Equally, as in Bosnia and Herzegovina, three main religions predominate - Islam, Orthodoxy and Catholicism.

The official name is Bosnia and Herzegovina. Located in the southeastern part of Europe, in the west of the Balkan Peninsula. Area 51,129 km2. The population is approximately approx. 3.8 million people According to the latest census (1991), 4.377 million people lived in the country. As a result of the military conflict in 1992-95, the population decreased significantly. The official languages ​​are Bossanian, Serbian, Croatian. The capital is Sarajevo (400 thousand people, 1991). The monetary unit is the convertible mark (CM).

Member of the UN (since 1992), OSCE (since 1992), Council of Europe (since 2002), etc.

Sights of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina is located between 15° and 20° east longitude and 46° and 42° north latitude. It has a narrow (approx. 15 km) access to the Adriatic Sea. The coastline is high, rocky, covered with islands.

It borders on the north, west and south with Croatia, on the east and southeast with Serbia and Montenegro.

The landscape is 90% mountainous. The mountains of the Dinaric system (highest point 2228 m) include two belts: the Bosnian Ore Mountains and the Dinaric Highlands. The largest rivers are the Sava (940 km), Drina (460 km), Bosna (308 km), Neretva (218 km). Plains - in the valleys of the Sava (southern edge of the Middle Danube Lowland) and Neretva.

The mountains are dominated by mountain-forest brown soils, podzolized to varying degrees; in the upper mountain belt there are mountain-meadow soils. In intermountain depressions, chernozem-like soils are common in places. The Sava River valley is dominated by chernozems combined with alluvial meadow soils.

OK. 40% of the territory is covered with deciduous and coniferous forests (beech, oak, pine, spruce). In the south there are evergreen shrubs. Fauna: deer, chamois, wild goats, bears, wolves, foxes, wild boars, reptiles (lizards, snakes), the most common fish is trout.

Minerals: brown coal, iron and manganese ores, bauxite, salt; hydro resources.

In the north, the climate is temperate continental (600-800 mm of precipitation per year), in the mountains it is cool and humid (1500 - 2500 mm of precipitation per year). In summer there is frequent fog and rain, in winter there is heavy snowfall. In the south, under the influence of the Adriatic, the Mediterranean, mild, warm (hot in summer) climate prevails.

Population of Bosnia and Herzegovina

There is no complete information about the size and structure of the population. During the military conflict of 1992-95, approx. 250 thousand people, missing St. 30 thousand people, approximately 2 million people became refugees and displaced persons.

Infant mortality 13 people. per 1000 newborns; The average life expectancy for men is 71 years, for women - 76 years.

Men - 48.7%, women - 51.3%; urban population - 43%. Age structure of the population: under 14 years old - 17.8%, 15-64 years old - 70.5%, 65 years old and older - 11.7%. The retirement age is 65 years. 95% have primary education, 57% have secondary education.

Ethnic composition: state-forming peoples Bosniaks (Slavs professing Islam) - 43.6%, Serbs - 31.4%, Croats - 17.3%, others - 7.7% (Montenegrins, Macedonians, Albanians, Gypsies, Rusyns, Jews and etc.).

The most common languages ​​that coincide with the state ones are: Bossanian, Serbian, Croatian.

Main religions: Islam (Sunni), Orthodoxy, Catholicism.

History of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The oldest population is the Illyrians. From the 1st century AD under the rule of Rome, in the 6th century. - Byzantium. In the 6th-7th centuries. the territory was inhabited by Slavs. In the 12th century The Bosnian Principality was formed, headed by a ban (prince) - the most famous is Ban Kulin (1180-1204). On the territory of the principality, Bogomilism became widespread, on the basis of which the so-called Bogomilism arose. Bosnian church. Medieval Bosnia reached its greatest prosperity under Stefan I Tvrtko (1353-91), who significantly expanded his possessions and proclaimed himself king. A region in the south was annexed to the Kingdom of Bosnia, which later received the name Herzegovina (in the 15th century, its ruler Stjepan Vukcic, who recognized fief dependence on the German king, received the title of duke from the latter).

From 1463 the territory of Bosnia, and from 1482 - of Herzegovina under the Ottoman yoke. A significant part of the population converted to Islam.

Resistance to Turkish rule acquired a particularly wide scope in the 19th century, its culmination was the Herzegovinian-Bosnian uprising of 1875-78.

By decision of the Berlin Congress in 1878, Belgium and Germany were occupied by Austria (annexed by it in 1908). The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina caused an acute political crisis in international relations. The assassination of the Austrian Archduke F. Ferdinand on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo served as the reason for the 1st World War. Since 1918, Bosnia and Herzegovina has been part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (since 1929 - the Kingdom of Yugoslavia). In 1941-45 it was occupied by Nazi Germany and included in the so-called. Independent State of Croatia.

In 1945-92 - as part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as a republic. In 1992, independence was declared in Bosnia and Herzegovina based on the results of the referendum (the Serbian community, which boycotted the referendum, created its own entity - the Republika Srpska). These events caused an escalation of interethnic contradictions, which escalated into a large-scale military conflict that lasted until the fall of 1995. Military actions were stopped thanks to the active efforts of the international community. In accordance with the agreements reached in Dayton (USA) in Paris, on December 14, 1995, the warring parties signed the “General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina,” also known as the Dayton Agreement.

Government structure and political system of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The process of state building in Bosnia and Herzegovina is at its initial stage. This is a state with a unique form of structure and government, combining elements of a federation and confederation (the institution of collective presidency, the presence of two armies, etc.). The Constitution adopted in 1995 is in force (part of the Dayton Agreement).

Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of two Entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska.

The largest cities: Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Tuzla, Mostar, Zenica.

The function of the head of state is performed by a collective body - the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is made up of three representatives of the state-forming peoples. The highest legislative body is the Parliamentary Assembly (parliament), consisting of two chambers (the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives). The highest executive body is the Council of Ministers.

Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina: B. Paravac (Serb), S. Tihich (Bosniak) and D. Covic (Croat) (2003).

Collegium of the House of Peoples: V. Jukic (Croat), G. Milojevic (Serb) and M. Pamuk (Bosniak).

Collegium of the House of Representatives: S. Jafarovic (Bosniak), N. Spirich (Serb) and M. Raguzh (Croat).

Members of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the leadership of the parliamentary chambers rotate in place of the presiding officer every 8 months.

The head of the Council of Ministers is A. Terzic.

Members of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina and deputies of the House of Representatives are elected by direct secret ballot separately in each entity (Serbian representative in the Presidency and 1/3 of the deputies of the House of Representatives from the Republika Srpska, representatives of Bosniaks and Croats in the Presidency and 2/3 of the deputies of the House of Representatives from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina). The term of office is 4 years (the current composition was elected in 2002). The House of Peoples (5 Serbs, 5 Bosniaks and 5 Croats) is formed by the parliaments of the Entities.

Entities (Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska) have broad powers with elements of state independence and have their own Constitutions. The functions of the executive and legislative powers in each of the Entities are carried out by the president, government and parliament, which act virtually independently of the central authorities.

The party system is built on a national basis. The leading parties represent Serbs, Croats and Bosniaks: Serbian Democratic Party, Croatian Democratic Commonwealth, Democratic Action Party. Attempts are being made to create multi-ethnic parties (the most influential of them is the Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina).

Domestic policy is aimed at implementing the Dayton Agreement, which provides for the strengthening of state institutions, the return of refugees, the settlement of interethnic relations, and the modernization of the economy. The wide international presence (peacekeeping military contingent, the institution of the High Representative, etc.) has a significant impact on the internal life of the country.

The main priorities of foreign policy are integration into European and Euro-Atlantic structures and regional cooperation.

The armed forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina are represented by two independent armies of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska in a ratio of 2: 1. The total strength is approx. 12 thousand people

Bosnia and Herzegovina has had diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation since 1995.

Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina

GDP - 5.1 billion US dollars, GDP per capita - 1194 US dollars, number of employed - 625 thousand people, unemployed - 435.5 thousand people, unemployment rate 41%, inflation - 0.2% (2001).

Sectoral structure of the economy (by contribution to GDP): industry - 25.3%, agriculture - 11.9%, service sector - 62.8%

The most important industries: ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, production of electricity and building materials, metalworking, textile and leather and footwear, petrochemical, woodworking, food.

Agriculture: crop production, incl. grain farming (corn, wheat), gardening, vegetable growing, viticulture, industrial crops (flax, tobacco, olives, sugar beets); pasture livestock farming (cattle, sheep).

Transport: railways (1031 km, traffic volume 3.2 million tons), asphalt roads (3788 km), airports in Sarajevo (280 thousand people per year), Mostar (100 thousand people), Banja Luka (40 thousand people), Tuzla (special transportation).

Communications - telephone, postal, telegraphic, teletype, radio, Internet, etc.

The tourism sector is in the recovery stage (before the military conflict, tourism revenues amounted to 2.5% of GDP).

Economic policy is focused on two directions: restoration of the economy destroyed during hostilities and its reform on a market basis. Social problems are solved largely through foreign financial assistance.

The Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina pursues a policy independent of the Bosnian authorities aimed at firmly supporting the exchange rate of the local currency KM to the euro. As a result, there is virtually no inflation in the country, which is achieved essentially by non-economic methods. The banking system is in its infancy (there are 40 commercial banks, some of them with foreign capital).

The state budget (530 million KM for 2003) is formed on the basis of contributions from entities and performs limited functions: servicing external debt and financing the activities of national bodies. In the tax sphere, a reform process is underway with the aim of introducing a unified value added tax in the country. Domestic debt - approx. 8 billion KM, external - 5 billion KM.

The average salary is 686 KM.

The foreign economic sphere is distinguished by a significant trade deficit (exports - 2.1 billion KM, imports - 8.2 billion KM, 2002). Export structure - raw and processed aluminum, electricity, timber, textiles, leather goods; import - oil and oil products, food industry products, machinery and equipment, electronics. Main trading partners: Croatia, Italy, Germany, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.

Science and culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina has a three-level education system. The first stage is the basic compulsory 8-year comprehensive school, the second is a 4-year gymnasium or secondary vocational school, the third is universities (4-5 years of study). The main universities are located in Sarajevo, Banja Luka and Mostar. The largest scientific center is the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina was formed under the influence of various traditions. The surviving ancient buildings bear the imprint of the Roman era; the Middle Ages are distinguished by a mixture of Byzantine and Central European styles. Under the Turks, numerous mosques, madrassas and bridges were created, many of which became widely known architectural monuments (Begova and Ali Pashina mosques in Sarajevo, the Old Bridge in Mostar, the bridge in Visegrad, etc.). For con. 19 - beginning 20th centuries characterized by imitation of Eastern and Renaissance culture (the building of the city hall "Vecnica" in Sarajevo). Along with mosques, majestic Orthodox and Catholic churches have been created here (the Church of the Holy Virgin and the Cathedral in Sarajevo). During the military conflict, a significant number of architectural and historical monuments on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina were completely or partially destroyed.

Bosnian literature and art have been significantly influenced by the country's complex and dramatic history. The best works are devoted to a philosophical understanding of the difficult fate of the Bosnian peoples (novels by Nobel laureate I. Andrić and M. Selimovic, paintings by I. Muezinović, etc.). The work of internationally recognized film directors E. Kusturica and D. Tanovic is associated with Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The goals of the post-war restoration of the cultural traditions of Bosnia and Herzegovina are served by international events held annually in Sarajevo: the music festivals “Sarajevo Winter” and “Nights of Bascarsija”, the festival of experimental theaters, the Sarajevo Film Festival.

As elsewhere in the Balkans, Bosnian cuisine was formed as a result of a mixture of South Slavic, German, Turkish and Mediterranean culinary traditions. The basis of local dishes is meat and vegetables, and if the Turkish influence is clearly visible in meat products, then in terms of vegetables and herbs the Bosnians are not inferior to their neighbors in the Mediterranean region. And from the Slavic peoples they inherited an abundance of dairy products, primarily cheese, and the widespread use of bread and grains.

The most widely used meat products are beef, lamb and pork, mostly fried over an open fire or stewed. At the same time, a characteristic feature of local cuisine is long-term heat treatment of products, with the obligatory use of vegetables and herbs. The most popular dishes of this group are "Bosanski-lonas" - a kind of roast meat with the addition of paprika, cabbage, vegetables and parsley, cabbage rolls "japrak", famous sausages made from minced meat "chevapchichi", shish kebab, baked meat with vegetables " Hadzhiyski-čevap", meat stewed with rice and vegetables "dzhuvech" ("gyuvech"), grilled meat "haiduk", large chopped cutlets "pljeskavica", burek with meat or cheese and puff pastries with cheese and meat "pida" , and dozens of other original dishes. Moreover, Serbian and Bosnian dishes are not much different from each other, except that in Bosnia they use more vegetable oil, and in the Serbian regions - kajmak milk, fermented in a special way.

A special article is vegetables. They are always served here, regardless of whether it is breakfast or dinner, as independent dishes or simply as a “green snack”. Local salads for the most part consist of very coarsely chopped vegetables dressed with olive or sunflower oil, but there are also often very complex dishes made from tomatoes, paprika and hot peppers, onions and numerous varieties of greens such as “srpska salata”, stuffed peppers or “jachinia” from several types of vegetables and herbs. You should also try the Sirnitsa cheese pie and Zelyanytsia spinach pie.

Fish and seafood are rarely used here, since the narrow strip of coast does not allow regular supplies to the local table. But in the Serbian part of the country, as well as on the coast, you can often find all kinds of fried fish (including river trout), fish goulash, fish pies and seafood salads. There is always fresh bread on the table, starting with quite traditional buns and loaves, and ending with thin unleavened bread “somun”, very similar to pita bread.

But the local desserts are very good. Here you can clearly trace the heritage of Turkish cooking - baklava, halva, lokum (lokum), gurabiye made from crumbly dough, sujuk with hazelnuts, or excellent puff pastry cookies with impregnation. And at the same time, baked goods of the Slavic type are also a frequent guest on the table - the famous pie with curd filling “Gibanica”, pancakes with various fillings “Palacinke”, nuts and plums baked in cheese “Štrukli”, donuts “Priganica”, apple pie with whipped cream “tufahiya” (sounds, however, quite Turkish), open pies with jam, “alva” nuts boiled in honey, various puddings, rolls and cookies of all kinds.

All this is washed down with an incredible amount of black coffee, which is consumed here in huge quantities. Milk, herbal tea, honey and various juices are also popular.

Among the alcoholic drinks, the most popular are beer (both local and imported), a light intoxicating drink made from millet “buza”, “salep” from tubers of wild orchids and orchis (drinked hot), as well as traditional strong drinks “rakia” (both grape and so fruity) and homemade moonshine. Local wines, although poorly known on international markets, deserve close attention. Herzegovinian wines are especially distinctive, primarily Gangash and Zhilavka.

Authors: F. A. Aleksenko (General information, Population, Economy), V. P. Shram (Governmental system), M. A. Arshinova (Nature), V. E. Khain (Nature: geological structure and minerals), K. V. Nikiforov (Historical sketch), A. N. Prokinova (Health), G. V. Pruttskov (Media), S. N. Meshcheryakov (Literature), N. M. Vagapova (Theater), V. N. Gorelov (Cinema)Authors: F. A. Aleksenko (General information, Population, Economy), V. P. Shram (Governmental system), M. A. Arshinova (Nature), V. E. Khain (Nature: geological structure and minerals); >>

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA(Bosna i Hercegovina, BiH).

General information

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a state in the south of Eastern Europe, in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula. In the north, northwest, west and southwest it borders with Croatia, in the east with Serbia, in the southeast with Montenegro (the total length of land borders is 1543 km). In the southeast it faces the coast of the Adriatic Sea (length approximately 20 km). Area 51.2 thousand km2. Population 3531.2 thousand people. (2013, census). The capital is Sarajevo. The official languages ​​are Bosnian (Bosanski), Serbian and Croatian (see. Serbo-Croatian language). The monetary unit is the convertible mark (KM).

Consists of two entities (from the Latin entitas - that which exists in itself, as a subject or object) - the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (area 26.2 thousand km 2, or 51.2% of the country's territory; population 2219.2 thousand people, 2013, or 62.8% of its total number) and the Republika Srpska (area 24.6 thousand km 2, 48.0%; population 1228.4 thousand people, 34.8%). Brčko community (the only narrow corridor connecting two parts of Republika Srpska in the extreme northeast of the country; area 402 km 2, or 0.8% of the country’s territory; population 83.5 thousand people, or 2.4% of its total) has the status of a special district and is a condominium of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska. In administrative-territorial terms, the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided into 10 cantons (table 1) (including 79 communities, or municipalities), the Republika Srpska - into 6 regions (63 communities). Regions of Republika Srpska: Banja Luka (includes 2 subregions: Mrkonjić Grad and Gradiška; 15 communities in total), Bijeljina (includes the Zvornik subregion; 12 communities), Doboj (8 communities), Istochno Sarajevo (East Sarajevo; includes the Foča subregion; 15 communities), Prijedor (6 communities) and Trebinje (7 communities).

Table 1. Administrative division of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a member of the UN (1992), CSCE (1992; since 1995 - OSCE), Council of Europe (2002), IMF (1992), IBRD (1993), Central European Free Trade Association (CEFTA; 2007); WTO observer. The Stabilization and Association Agreement with the European Union was signed on June 16, 2008, and entered into force on June 1, 2015.

Political system

Bosnia and Herzegovina– a federal state comprising the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska. Constitution Bosnia and Herzegovina accepted 12/14/1995. The form of government is a parliamentary republic.

The function of the head of state is assigned to a collegial body - the Presidium Bosnia and Herzegovina, consisting of 3 members: one Bosnian and one Croat (elected directly from Bosnia and Herzegovina) and one Serb (elected directly from Republika Srpska). The term of office of the Presidium is 4 years (with the right of one re-election). Members of the Presidium elect a chairman from among themselves. The Presidium determines the main directions of the state's foreign policy; appoints ambassadors and other state representatives abroad; represents in international organizations; conducts negotiations, etc. Each member of the Presidium, by virtue of his position, has the authority to lead the country's armed forces.

The highest legislative body is the bicameral parliament (Parliamentary Assembly). The House of Representatives (lower house) consists of 42 deputies: 2/3 are elected by the population from Bosnia and Herzegovina, and 1/3 - from the Republika Srpska according to the proportional system for a period of 4 years. The House of Peoples (upper house) consists of 15 deputies: 2/3 are elected by national parliaments from Bosnia and Herzegovina(including 5 deputies from Croats and 5 deputies from Bosniaks) and 1/3 from Republika Srpska (5 deputies from Serbs).

Executive power belongs to the Council of Ministers. The Chairman of the Council of Ministers is appointed by the Presidium Bosnia and Herzegovina after approval by the House of Representatives.

IN Bosnia and Herzegovina there is a multi-party system; The main political parties are the Democratic Action Party, the Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Serbian Democratic Party, the Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Croatian Democratic Union / Christian Democratic Party.

Nature

Relief

Most of the territory Bosnia and Herzegovina located within Dinaric Highlands. From north-west to south-east, predominantly flat-topped, strongly dissected, often with steep slopes, mountain ranges and vast intermountain basins stretch parallel to each other. In the northern and southern parts, hills and low mountains predominate, in the central part there are mid-mountain and high-mountain massifs, reaching 2386 m in the southeast (the highest point Bosnia and Herzegovina- Mount Maglich). Karst landforms are widespread - bare limestone rocks, karras, caves, underground rivers. Vast fields were formed in the intermountain basins, including Livansko-Pole (405 km 2). In the southwest there is a short (about 20 km) section of the mountainous coast of the Adriatic Sea. In the north, along the Sava River valley, there is a plain with flat watersheds and wide river valleys (the southern part Central Danube Lowland).

Geological structure and minerals

The territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina is located within the Dinaric fold system (the so-called Dinarides) of the Cenozoic Alpine-Himalayan mobile belt, which is characterized by a cover-zonal structure. The outer (western) zones are folded and disturbed by thrusts and covers of sedimentary strata of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Paleogene and represent fragments of the cover of the continental block of Adria (located to the west, in the Adriatic Sea), torn off at different stages of Alpine tectogenesis. The internal (eastern) zones are formed by Jurassic nappes ophiolites, Cretaceous limestones and Cretaceous-Paleogene flysch– fragments of the crust of the Neo-Tethys oceanic basin (see article Tethys ). There are intrusions of Cenozoic granitoids. Small depressions are filled with Neogene coal-bearing deposits. The country's territory is highly seismic. As a result of the catastrophic earthquake of 1969, the city of Banja Luka was largely destroyed.

The most important minerals: bauxite [deposits mainly of the karst type: near Vlasenica (very large), Milici – both Republika Srpska, Bijeljina region; in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina - near Jajce, Central Bosnian canton; near Bosanska Krupa, Unsko-Sansky canton, etc.], iron ores (Lubija deposit - Republika Srpska, Prijedor region; as well as the ore districts of Varesh, Omarska), lead and zinc ores (in the Srebrenica area - Republika Srpska, Bijeljina region ), brown coal (Banovichi and Central Bosnian basins - in the Tuzlan, Zenica-Doboj and Central Bosnian cantons of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Bijeljina region of the Republic of Srpska), lignites (in the western, northern, northeastern and southern regions of the country).

Deposits of manganese (near the town of Bosanska Krupa; Buzhim, Chevlyanovichi) and mercury (Drazevic) ores have been discovered. There are deposits of rock salt (in the Tuzla area), barite (Kreshevo), asbestos (Bosansko-Petrovo-Selo), graphite, dolomite, bentonite, kaolin, gypsum and anhydrite, building stones (porphyry, basalts, granites, carbonate rocks, marble and etc.), sand and gravel, mineral and thermal waters.

Climate

In most of the country the climate is temperate continental. Summer is warm (average air temperatures in July are 19–21 °C on the plains, 12–18 °C in the mountains). Winter is moderately cool (average air temperatures in January are from 0 to –2 °C on the plains, from –4 to –7 °C in the mountains). Every year, 800–1000 mm of atmospheric precipitation falls evenly on the plains and 1500–1800 mm in the mountains. In the southwest and south of B. and G. the climate is subtropical Mediterranean, with hot, dry summers (average air temperatures in July 25 °C) and warm, humid winters (average air temperatures in January 5 °C). Up to 1600 mm of precipitation falls annually with a maximum in November – December.

Inland waters

IN Bosnia and Herzegovina– a dense and branched river network with a total length of over 2000 km. About 3/4 of the territory belongs to the Danube River basin. The main rivers are the Sava with the tributaries Una, Sana, Vrbas, Bosna, and Drina flowing mainly from south to north. The largest of the rivers of the Adriatic Sea basin (1/4 of the territory Bosnia and Herzegovina) – Neretva. The largest lakes Bushko and Bilechko are of karst origin. Annually renewable water resources amount to 37.5 km 3, water availability is 9.8 thousand m 3 per person per year (2014). Mountain rivers have significant hydropower potential; created approx. 30 reservoirs. About 1% of available water resources are used for economic purposes (2012); physical losses of water are significant due to the unfavorable state of water supply systems (up to 50% of total water intake).

Soils, flora and fauna

Fertile alluvial soils are common in the valleys of the Sava River and its tributaries, and brown soils are common in the mountains. Forests occupy 53% of the country's area (2015). On the plains of the north Bosnia and Herzegovina Indigenous broadleaf forests have been replaced by agricultural land. The modern forest cover is dominated by foothill and mountain broad-leaved forests, mainly beech forests (up to 40%). In the foothills and on the northern slopes of the mountains, up to a height of 500 m, oak and hornbeam forests grow with an admixture of maple, linden, and elm. In the central regions, beech forests are common, at an altitude of 800–900 m they are replaced by beech-fir forests with an admixture of pine and spruce. In the southeast, in the belt of mixed and coniferous forests, the endemic Serbian spruce is occasionally found. Above 1600–1700 m there are crooked mountain pine forests and subalpine meadows. On the southwestern slopes, on brown soils, maquis with holm oak, red juniper and other predominantly evergreen species of shrubs are common; on rocky slopes, phrygana is common. Above 300–400 m, areas of indigenous forests of downy and holm oaks, hornbeam, and French maple are combined with thickets of shiblyak in the rendzinas.

The fauna includes more than 85 species of mammals, over 320 species of birds, 38 species of reptiles and 20 species of amphibians, 119 species of freshwater fish (20% of the freshwater ichthyofauna of Europe). The forests are inhabited by red deer, roe deer, brown bear, wolf, wild boar, European lynx, wild cat, and pine marten. Reptiles are numerous in karst areas. In the swampy lower reaches of the Neretva River (Khutovo-Blato Nature Park) over 160 species of birds are found, the little cormorant, little egret, gray heron, night heron, etc. nest.

Condition and protection of the environment

The adverse environmental consequences of the military conflict of the 1990s remain: minefields occupy up to 3% of the country’s territory (2012), in some areas at the site of former ammunition storage, soil and water are subject to contamination, the problems of toxic waste disposal and infrastructure restoration have not been fully resolved. Ecological problems Bosnia and Herzegovina are also associated with the lack of a unified system of spatial planning, environmental monitoring and land monitoring. Landscapes in areas where minerals are extracted are severely disturbed; 900 hectares of land are lost annually during open-pit mining. The southern and central parts of the country are highly susceptible to erosion (including due to unsustainable exploitation of forests) and landslides. In the cities of Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Tuzla there are significant levels of pollution with sulfur and nitrogen dioxides and particulate matter. Due to an insufficiently developed water purification system, surface water pollution is an acute problem. Discharge of polluted wastewater 93.7 million m 3 (2013), most of the rivers are polluted with nitrogen and phosphorus compounds (Bosna, Drina, Neretva, etc.). 24 species of mammals, 97 species of birds and 11 species of reptiles are threatened with extinction.

IN Bosnia and Herzegovina 23 protected natural areas, occupying 1.96% of the country’s area (2014), including national parks Sutjeska, Kozara, Una; 2 reserves with strict conservation regime, 5 natural parks. Wetlands of international importance, protected under the Ramsar Convention, include 3 territories with a total area of ​​\u200b\u200b. 56.8 thousand hectares, including Livansko-Pole.

Population

From ser. 19th century Along with the revitalization of the activities of local traveling troupes, the process of forming a stationary theater of the European type began. A significant contribution to the development of theatrical culture was made by local amateur actors (A. Banovich and his troupe) and foreign diplomats who gave private theater evenings in Sarajevo. So, in 1865, an amateur troupe led by S. Petranovich played “Judith” by K. F. for a select audience. Hebbel. Around 1867, several performances were performed by amateur artists from a theater organized by the English consul. The props of this theater were bought by Sarajevo businessmen, the Despić brothers. Performances were given at their home from 1870–78. Troupes of “amateurs” from Serbia and Croatia toured (often illegally) in Sarajevo and other cities. , local traveling troupes performed, such as the Peles Group (1879). In 1881–94, a theater operated in Sarajevo under the leadership of the German entrepreneur G. Spira. Drama clubs existed under popular amateur musical groups in Bosnia. Attempts at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. The creation in Sarajevo of a permanent (troupe of D. Ginich), traveling (troupe of M. Crnogorcevic; both 1898) or amateur (1912) theater playing in the Serbian language was suppressed by the authorities of Austria-Hungary.

In 1899, the grand opening of the Assembly House took place in Sarajevo (architect K. Parzhik), which combined the functions of a city club and a theater (this building, later adapted to the needs of the stage, now houses the National Theater). The invited troupe of the Croatian National Theater from Zagreb performed the play “Medea” by F. Grillparzer. The prologue to the performance was the performance of the ode “To the Muse of Enlightenment” by the Croatian poet S. S. Krančević, who lived in Sarajevo.

In August 1919, the Ministry of Education of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, on the proposal of the National Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina, decided to create a National Theater (Narodno pozorište) in Sarajevo. The official opening took place in October 1921, with a welcoming speech given by the Serbian playwright B. Nusic, whose play “Protection” opened the first season. By tradition, the troupe consisted of actors of different nationalities: Bosnian Muslims, Serbs, Croats and Sephardic Jews. Theater workers from neighboring regions of Yugoslavia, as well as directors and actors from among Russian immigrants, took an active part in cultural life. The first professional director and artistic director of the Sarajevo stage was A. A. Vereshchagin (worked in Russia with V. E. Meyerhold, in the theater "False mirror" and the Ancient Theater of N. N. Evreinov). In the 1921/22 season, he staged the performances “The Imaginary Invalid” and “The Tricks of Scapin” by Moliere, “The Inspector General” by N.V. Gogol, “The Living Corpse” by L.N. Tolstoy, and “Oedipus Rex” by Sophocles. The repertoire of the National Theater also includes a staging of “Ward No. 6” by A. P. Chekhov, “At the Lower Depths” by M. Gorky and other Russian plays. They were played by Vereshchagin himself, his wife, actress A. Leskova, and subsequently famous in Yugoslavia Sarajevo actors D. Radenkovic, V. Starčić, V. Africh. In the mid-1920s. a new impetus for the development of theatrical life was given by the activity of the actor and director V. Beck, who was educated in Vienna; Among his most striking productions are “Hamlet” by W. Shakespeare (Beck played the title role) and a dramatization of “Anna Karenina” by L.N. Tolstoy, directed by the Russian director A.D. Sibiryakov with actress L.V. Mansvetova in the role of Anna. In 1924–27, the National Theater was led by Nušić, who sought to instill in the public, who sometimes preferred sentimental scenes from folk life and French salon plays, a taste for the European classical repertoire and modern national drama: the dramas of I. Voinovich, his own satirical comedies, the works of I. Palavestra and I. Samokovlii. Interest in the achievements of psychological theater was aroused by the tours of the Prague group of artists of the Moscow Art Theater in the 1920s. The Slovenian actor and director R. Pregarc made a great contribution to shaping the image of the National Theater. In 1930–36 he staged several plays by Shakespeare, “Cunning and Love” by F. Schiller, “The Marriage of Figaro” by P. Beaumarchais, “Just as You Want” by L. Pirandello, “In the Agony” and “The Lords of Glembai” by M. Krlezsa . With the support of immigrants from Russia - directors and teachers V. M. Grech, P. A. Pavlova, L. V. Mansvetova, A. D. Sibiryakov, actors of the younger generation fought for the renewal of the Sarajevo stage: J. Dacic, O. Babich, S. Ilic, S. Tanich, A. Cvetkovic and others. The achievements of the 1939/40 season at the National Theater were the performances of “Julius Caesar” by Shakespeare, “Crime and Punishment” by F. M. Dostoevsky and “Pygmalion” by B. Shaw. The theater was also opened in Banja Luka (1930).

During World War II, the National Theater in Sarajevo was renamed the Croatian State Theater. The repertoire consisted mainly of plays by Croatian, Bosnian Muslim and German playwrights. The event was the production of Shakespeare's Hamlet by the outstanding Croatian director B. Gavella (1942). After 1945, the National Theater returned its historical name. From ser. 1960s This is where the Experimental Scene works.

In 1950, the Maly Theater [now Kamerni teatar 55] opened in Sarajevo. Theaters appeared in the cities of Mostar, Tuzla (both 1949), Zenica (1950). The first post-war years passed, as in all theaters of Yugoslavia, under the influence of Soviet drama and theory "socialist realism". The National Theater's performance based on the comedy "Partition" by S. Kulenovich (1948), which stood out from this series and, in the best traditions of satire, castigated the recent partisans, and now people's deputies who are not averse to profiting at the expense of the working people, was banned with a scandal. Followed from the 2nd half of the 1950s. The period of liberalization of the cultural life of the SFRY was marked by an update of the repertoire, attempts to master modern American drama, plays by French existentialists, absurdist drama, as well as works by new domestic authors of different nationalities. The modernization of theatrical life was facilitated by numerous tours to Sarajevo of theaters from neighboring republics of Yugoslavia and foreign countries (National People's Theater J. Vilar, France; Moscow Art Theater, Milan "Piccolo Theater" and etc.). In the 1960s–1980s. The attention of spectators and critics was attracted by the performances of the National Theater “The House Washed by Tears” by R. Colakovic and “Funeral in Theresienburg” by M. Krlezha (director M. Belovich), “Rabies” by F. K. Kretz and “The Brothers Karamazov” by F. M. . Dostoevsky (director S. Kupusovich), “The Wandering Troupe of Shopalovich” by L. Simovich (director J. Lesic), “Dead Souls” based on N.V. Gogol (director D. Mijach). Directors O. Milicevic, B. Hanauska, B. Gligorovich, B. Draskovic, V. Jablan worked on classics and modern texts by M. Jancic, S. Pasalic, C. Sijarić, A. Isakovic, S. Plakal, J. Karahasan, H. Pashovich and others. The new dramaturgy was distinguished by a combination of searches in the field of everyday and psychological drama, political satire, historical tragedy and parahistorical reconstruction of famous events (for example, the play “Principle G.” by D. Andzic, dedicated to a student whose shot became the reason for the beginning of First World War). The acting works of R. Demirdzic, N. Djurevska, J. Pejakovic, I. Bajrovic, D. Cavic, S. Pasalic, A. Cheyvan, M. Danira, A. Begovic, S. Mijatovic, A. Pavlovic, S. Sadikovic stood out and etc.

In the beginning. In the 1990s, with the collapse of Yugoslavia and the beginning of the military conflict, artists from several theaters in Sarajevo united into the troupe of the Sarajevo War Theater (SARTR - Sarajevski ratni teatar) led by playwright and actor S. Plakalo: during the 4 years of the blockade, more than 2000 performances took place. Since 1997 SARTR has become one of the theaters of the canton of Sarajevo.

The National Theater troupe staged the plays “Fortress” based on the novel by M. Selimovic, “Sarajevo Triangle” » Sh. Chegicha, “Hasanaginitsa” by A. Isakovich, “Ajax” by Sophocles, “Quartet” by H. Müller, etc. Since the building of the National Theater was too visible a target during shelling, the performances were performed mainly in the premises of the “Chamber Theater 55”. The play “Waiting for Godot” by S. Beckett, staged by the famous American writer and public figure S. Sontag as a sign of solidarity with the actors and public of the besieged city, caused a wide public response. The square in front of the National Theater now bears the name of S. Sontag.

In the repertoire of the drama troupe of the National Theater in the 2000s - 2010s. – A. Bašović’s play “Visions of the Age of Srebrenica”, dedicated to the tragedy of this Bosnian city, dramas by M. Krleža, B. Nušić, G. Stefanovski, plays by R. Colaković, S. Kulenović, performances based on works of local, as well as Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian satirists, classics of world literature: “The Balkan Spy in Sarajevo” by D. Kovacevic (2012, director S. Kupusovic), “Tartuffe” by Moliere (2013, director N. Hamzagic), “At the Edge of the Universe” by D. Komadin, A. Lugonich , D. Bevanda, N. Lindova and A. Pilava (2013, director M. Misiracha), “Wild Meat” by G. Stefanovsky (2015, director D. Mustafic), “Elizabeth Bam” by D. I. Kharms (2016, director A. Kurt), etc. The National Theater’s playbill also includes operas (“Eugene Onegin” by P. I. Tchaikovsky, 2012; “Ero from the Other World” by J. Gotovets, 2014; “The Maid and Mistress” by G. B. Pergolesi, 2015 ; “Don Giovanni” by W. A. ​​Mozart, 2016) and ballets (“Romeo and Juliet” by S. S. Prokofiev, 2011; “Mare Nostrum” to combined music, 2012; “Pulcinella” by I. F. Stravinsky and “Giselle” » A. Adana, both 2014; “Don Quixote” by L. F. Minkus, 2016). Among the actors: E. Bavčić, E. Muftić, H. Borich, A. Kapidzic, S. Pepeljak, V. Seksan, M. Lepic, R. Lutovic, A. Omerovic, A. Seksan, V. Dekic, S. Vidak , E. Shiyamiya. The repertoire of Chamber Theater 55 is dominated by modern Western European drama. The renewed SARTR theater troupe, along with stationary ones, organizes traveling performances; in the repertoire: “1984” (2012) and “Animal Farm” (2015) by J. Orwell, “Another Letter from the Red Cross” by S. Krsmanovich and E. Selman (2014), “A Streetcar Named Desire” by T. Williams (2015 ), “The Little Mermaid” by H. K. Andersen and “State of Shock” by S. Shepard (both 2016), etc.

Sarajevo annually hosts the International Theater Festival MESS (founded in 1960 on the initiative of the playwright and theater figure J. Korenić), and since 2016 the festival “Days of Jurislav Korenić” has been held. The theater program is presented as part of the annual International Arts Festival "Sarajevo Winter" (founded in 1984/85). In the city of Banja Luka there is a National Theater (Narodno pozoriste Republika Srpske), City Theater "Jazavac" (Gradsko pozoriste Jazavac, 2006; named after the badger - the hero of the satirical comedy of the classic of Serbian Bosnian literature P. Kočić): the annual festival "Petar" is held Kochich." The Museum of Literature and Theater Arts of Bosne and Hercegovine has been operating in Sarajevo since 1961.

The theater magazine “Agon” has been published in Banja Luka since 2010. Since 2016, the publication of the theater magazine “Pozorište” has resumed in Sarajevo; "Theater"), until the 1990s. published in Tuzla. Leading theater experts and theater historians: J. Lesic, V. Ubavic, N. Novakovic, N. Glisic, D. Lukic, M. Radonich, T. Sarajlic-Slavnic.

Movie

The first film show in Sarajevo took place in 1897 (demonstration of films by brothers L. and O. Lumiere). The earliest surviving film footage of Bosnia and Sarajevo was made in 1912 under the title A Journey Through Bosnia by the London studio Charles Urban. ). The pioneer of B. and G. cinema was A. Valich, who managed the Apollo and Imperial cinemas in Sarajevo. In 1913–14 he made 5 films, including one about the assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and the demonstrations that followed. The first feature films were the short “On the Border” (directed by B. Kosanovich) and the full-length “Major Ghost” (directed by N. Popovich; both 1951). Famous writers often acted as screenwriters (B. Copic, M. Selimovic, I. Samokovliya, M. Kovac, A. Sidran). Most of the films were produced by the Bosna Film company ( Bosna Film; many were joint productions with other Yugoslav republics or foreign partners). Founded in the 1960s enterprise "Sutjeska-film" ("Sutjeska Film" ), specializing in the production of documentaries and short films, led to the flourishing of these genres. T.n. Sarajevo Documentary Film School gave cinema Bosnia and Herzegovina such directors as H. Krvavac, D. Tanovic, J. Ristić, M. Mutapčić, G. Šipovac, T. Janjic, P. Majchrovski, B. Cengic, B. Filipović. Along with them, a significant role in the formation of original cinemaBosnia and Herzegovina, which received worldwide recognition, was played by I. Matic, N. Stojanovic and M. Idrizovic, who came from amateur cinema, as well as theater figures B. Draskovic and J. Lesic. In 1981, the Academy of Performing Arts was founded in Sarajevo with the only acting department at that time (the directing department opened in 1989, and dramaturgy in 1994). Among the most significant films that were filmed entirely or partially in Bosnia and Herzegovina B . Cengic, “The Smell of Quince” by M. Idrizovic (1982), “Woman and Landscape” by I. Matic (1975, released in 1989), “Here’s a Little Bit of Soul” by A. Kenovich (1987), “Donkey Years” N. Dizdarevich (1994). E. also started working at the Bosna Film studio. Kusturica (“Do You Remember Dolly Bell?”, 1981; “Dad on a Business Trip,” 1985; “The Hanging House,” 1988), but with the outbreak of hostilities for political reasons, he left Sarajevo and continued working in Belgrade. The military conflict had a negative impact on the development of cinema. However, since 1995, the International Film Festival has been taking place in Sarajevo, and the post-war boom has made cinema Bosnia and Herzegovina one of the most noticeable in South-Eastern Europe at the turn of the 20th–21st centuries. The first post-war feature film was “A Perfect Circle” by A. Kenovich (1997), and the greatest success was the film “No Man’s Land” by D. Tanovic (2001, jointly with Italy, Slovenia, France, Great Britain, Belgium, Oscar Award, International Film Festival in Cannes and many others). Among the films of the 2000–2010s: “10 Minutes” (2002, recognized as the best European short film of the year), “To the West” (2005) and “Belvedere” (2010) by A. Imamovich, “Summer in the Golden Valley” ( 2003) and “It’s hard to be good” (2007) by S. Vuletic, “Remake” by D. Mustafic (2003), “Bickford Cord” (2003) and “Days and Hours” (2004) by P. Zhalica, “Yasmina” by N. Begovich (2010), “Snow” (2008) and “Children of Sarajevo” (2012) by A. Begic, “Halima’s Path” by A. A. Ostojic (2012), “With Mom” by F. Lonkarevich, “For Those Who Can’t lie” J. Zbanich (both 2013).