What continent is Bosnia and Herzegovina located on? Bosnia and Herzegovina

Basic moments

In recent decades, Bosnia and Herzegovina has been actively developing tourism and now can offer travelers many historical attractions - ancient Christian churches, mosques and medieval castles. In addition, this European state has a luxurious nature. 90% of its territory is made up of picturesque mountains and foothills. And in winter, many ski fans come here.

In ancient times, the lands of Bosnia and Herzegovina were inhabited by Celts and Illyrians. In the 1st century AD the territory was controlled by the Roman Empire, and from the 6th century. - Byzantium. In subsequent centuries, the fertile foothill lands were inhabited by Serbs. In the 12th century, the Bosnian state was formed here. The country received its modern name and constitutional structure in the form of a parliamentary republic after the end of the Balkan War in 1995. Historically, the name “Bosnia and Herzegovina” was the result of the merger of two words: the name of the Bosna River and the German title “duke”, which was borne by the voivode Stefan Vuksic Kosaca in the 15th century.

Unfortunately, Bosnia and Herzegovina faces the 21st century with a lot of pressing problems. Today it is considered the poorest country in Europe and has a very high unemployment rate. BiH has on its territory a peacekeeping force of the European Union operating under the auspices of the UN. They provide solutions to interethnic problems and the removal of political tensions, and are also a guarantor of the prevention of ethnic conflicts.

However, these internal problems do not prevent the residents of Bosnia and Herzegovina from remaining very welcoming and hospitable to everyone who wants to get acquainted with the traditions and culture of the peoples inhabiting it. Most guests come here from neighboring countries, Germany and Turkey. The flow of tourists from Russia and the CIS countries is not yet large, but it is growing every year.

Traveling around Bosnia and Herzegovina is absolutely safe. For Russians, this country provides 30-day visa-free entry. The road here does not take much time, and in the major tourist centers of Bosnia and Herzegovina and at its ski resorts you can find a fairly high level of service. Low prices, natural attractions, excellent cuisine and interesting architectural monuments make traveling through one of the most beautiful countries in South-Eastern Europe very attractive.

Climate

Bosnia and Herzegovina is located in a temperate continental climate zone. And its south and southwest are characterized by a subtropical Mediterranean climate. The summer months here are never too hot. In mid-summer the air temperature does not rise above +27ºС. In flat areas it is always warmer, and in the mountains in summer the temperature ranges from +10ºС to +21ºС.

Winters in this country are also quite mild. Frosts below -10ºС are very rare here, and temperatures usually range from 0ºС to +5ºС. In the mountainous part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, stable snow cover lasts for several months - from November to April, that is, the ski season in this country is quite long. True, ideal conditions for skiing, as a rule, begin in December and end at the end of February. During these few months, most fans of alpine skiing come to Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Precipitation occurs mainly in summer and early winter - from November to December. Moreover, on the eastern slopes of the mountains there is almost 4 times less precipitation per year than on the western slopes. The mountainous nature of the area determines other climatic features of Bosnia and Herzegovina. There are many microclimatic zones here where the weather pattern changes very quickly within one day.

Tourist opportunities

After the Balkan War, the tourism infrastructure in the country is developing quite quickly. Every year more and more travelers come to Bosnia and Herzegovina who want to get acquainted with this “intimate” unique European state.

Experts from the World Tourism Organization believe that Bosnia and Herzegovina will become one of the world leaders in terms of growth rates in the tourism sector of the economy over the next few years. In popular guidebooks, Lonely Planet is mentioned as one of the most attractive tourist centers in Europe, where many cultural, historical and religious monuments are concentrated, interesting for travelers from any country.

Ski resorts

In recent years, Bosnia and Herzegovina has been trying to regain its glory as a prestigious ski center and is actively developing the infrastructure of winter resorts. The largest resorts for ski lovers exist nearby. There are four of them, and all of them were Olympic venues in 1984. All ski centers in Bosnia and Herzegovina are distinguished by ease of access, affordable prices for ski passes and equipment rental, good hotels and excellent inexpensive local cuisine.

30 km from the capital of the country, on the slopes of the mountain of the same name, lies the sports center of Jahorina. The slopes here are 20 km long and equipped with four chair lifts. Some of the trails are illuminated at night. In addition to alpine skiing, people come here for cross-country skiing, snowboarding and sledding. Guests of this resort do not have to worry - there are hotels and apartments for every taste near the slopes.

The ski center Bjelašnica is a little closer to (25 km). The height difference on its slopes is quite large - about 860 m. There are slopes for night skiing and various lifts. The slopes of this resort are more suitable for intermediate skiers. In the summer months, the local slopes are explored by lovers of paragliding and hiking.

The Vlašić ski center was built at an altitude of 1260 m and is located 120 m from the capital of the country. Although this resort is considered one of the southernmost in Europe, snow cover here lasts up to five months a year. Most of the slopes at this resort are suitable for beginners and children. The slopes are served by 4 ski lifts. In addition, Vlašić has a lighted ice skating rink.

Kupres, located in the Croatian part of the country, is used as a sports center both in winter and summer. This ski resort is often called Adria-ski, and it is actively developing. Today, ski lovers will find 4 slopes here, the length of the tracks is 14 km.

What to see in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Despite the small size of the country, Bosnia and Herzegovina has many historical monuments and interesting natural sites that attract many tourists from different places. This European state is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites - the Old Bridge in the historical center of Mostar and the Mehmed Pasha Bridge in Visegrad. Both of these unique stone bridges were built in the mid-16th century.

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, many stone medieval castles and ancient fortresses built in the 12th-18th centuries have been preserved. They served for defensive purposes and as residences for local kings and nobles. The best preserved monuments of the Middle Ages are located in (Bijela Tabija), Vares (Bobovac), Bihac (Captain's Citadel), Doboj (Doboj Fortress), Gradacac (Gradacac Castle), Jajce (Jajce Castle), Banja Luka (Kastel Castle), Cazin (Ostrožac), Livno (the citadels of Smailagić and Vujadin), Tesane (Tesan Castle) and Travnik (Travnik Castle).

Taxis can only be used in large cities. But please note that not all cars have meters, so it is better to agree on the cost of the trip in advance.

It is convenient to travel by buses, trolleybuses and trams. One trip costs about 2 VAM. And to save money, you need to purchase a one-day pass, which costs 5 VAM.

Safety

As in all Slavic countries, in Bosnia and Geozegovina tourists from Russia are treated kindly. The locals are always friendly and helpful. The crime rate here is not high. However, when traveling around the Old Town in , tourists need to be wary of pickpockets.

In addition, it is always necessary to take into account that both Christians and Muslims live in the country. The three main communities - Bosniaks (adherents of Islam), Croats and Serbs continue to live separately, so it is better not to touch on controversial political and religious issues in conversations. For example, you should not discuss the problems of the recent Balkan War with strangers or openly demonstrate your political sympathy for someone. You should also be careful when purchasing souvenirs with a “political” theme.

A taxi ride from the airport to the Sarajevo bus station will cost 5-6 euros. There is another, cheaper, but rather labor-intensive option. You can walk to a public transport stop, take a tram and ride it into the city. A tram ticket will cost 1.8 VAM.

The bus and train stations are nearby. And they are easy to find based on a noticeable landmark - the tall, “twisted” tower is clearly visible from many places in the city.

The official name is Bosnia and Herzegovina. Located in the southeastern part of Europe, in the west of the Balkan Peninsula. Area 51,129 km2. The population is approximately approx. 3.8 million people According to the latest census (1991), 4.377 million people lived in the country. As a result of the military conflict in 1992-95, the population decreased significantly. The official languages ​​are Bossanian, Serbian, Croatian. The capital is Sarajevo (400 thousand people, 1991). The monetary unit is the convertible mark (CM).

Member of the UN (since 1992), OSCE (since 1992), Council of Europe (since 2002), etc.

Sights of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina is located between 15° and 20° east longitude and 46° and 42° north latitude. It has a narrow (approx. 15 km) access to the Adriatic Sea. The coastline is high, rocky, covered with islands.

It borders on the north, west and south with Croatia, on the east and southeast with Serbia and Montenegro.

The landscape is 90% mountainous. The mountains of the Dinaric system (highest point 2228 m) include two belts: the Bosnian Ore Mountains and the Dinaric Highlands. The largest rivers are the Sava (940 km), Drina (460 km), Bosna (308 km), Neretva (218 km). Plains - in the valleys of the Sava (southern edge of the Middle Danube Lowland) and Neretva.

The mountains are dominated by mountain-forest brown soils, podzolized to varying degrees; in the upper mountain belt there are mountain-meadow soils. In intermountain depressions, chernozem-like soils are common in places. The Sava River valley is dominated by chernozems combined with alluvial meadow soils.

OK. 40% of the territory is covered with deciduous and coniferous forests (beech, oak, pine, spruce). In the south there are evergreen shrubs. Fauna: deer, chamois, wild goats, bears, wolves, foxes, wild boars, reptiles (lizards, snakes), the most common fish is trout.

Minerals: brown coal, iron and manganese ores, bauxite, salt; hydro resources.

In the north, the climate is temperate continental (600-800 mm of precipitation per year), in the mountains it is cool and humid (1500 - 2500 mm of precipitation per year). In summer there is frequent fog and rain, in winter there is heavy snowfall. In the south, under the influence of the Adriatic, the Mediterranean, mild, warm (hot in summer) climate prevails.

Population of Bosnia and Herzegovina

There is no complete information about the size and structure of the population. During the military conflict of 1992-95, approx. 250 thousand people, missing St. 30 thousand people, approximately 2 million people became refugees and displaced persons.

Infant mortality 13 people. per 1000 newborns; The average life expectancy for men is 71 years, for women - 76 years.

Men - 48.7%, women - 51.3%; urban population - 43%. Age structure of the population: under 14 years old - 17.8%, 15-64 years old - 70.5%, 65 years old and older - 11.7%. The retirement age is 65 years. 95% have primary education, 57% have secondary education.

Ethnic composition: state-forming peoples Bosniaks (Slavs professing Islam) - 43.6%, Serbs - 31.4%, Croats - 17.3%, others - 7.7% (Montenegrins, Macedonians, Albanians, Gypsies, Rusyns, Jews and etc.).

The most common languages ​​that coincide with the state ones are: Bossanian, Serbian, Croatian.

Main religions: Islam (Sunni), Orthodoxy, Catholicism.

History of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The oldest population is the Illyrians. From the 1st century AD under the rule of Rome, in the 6th century. - Byzantium. In the 6th-7th centuries. the territory was inhabited by Slavs. In the 12th century The Bosnian Principality was formed, headed by a ban (prince) - the most famous is Ban Kulin (1180-1204). On the territory of the principality, Bogomilism became widespread, on the basis of which the so-called Bogomilism arose. Bosnian church. Medieval Bosnia reached its greatest prosperity under Stefan I Tvrtko (1353-91), who significantly expanded his possessions and proclaimed himself king. A region in the south was annexed to the Kingdom of Bosnia, which later received the name Herzegovina (in the 15th century, its ruler Stjepan Vukcic, who recognized fief dependence on the German king, received the title of duke from the latter).

From 1463 the territory of Bosnia, and from 1482 - of Herzegovina under the Ottoman yoke. A significant part of the population converted to Islam.

Resistance to Turkish rule acquired a particularly wide scope in the 19th century, its culmination was the Herzegovinian-Bosnian uprising of 1875-78.

By decision of the Berlin Congress in 1878, Belgium and Germany were occupied by Austria (annexed by it in 1908). The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina caused an acute political crisis in international relations. The assassination of the Austrian Archduke F. Ferdinand on June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo served as the reason for the 1st World War. Since 1918, Bosnia and Herzegovina has been part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (since 1929 - the Kingdom of Yugoslavia). In 1941-45 it was occupied by Nazi Germany and included in the so-called. Independent State of Croatia.

In 1945-92 - as part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as a republic. In 1992, independence was declared in Bosnia and Herzegovina based on the results of the referendum (the Serbian community, which boycotted the referendum, created its own entity - the Republika Srpska). These events caused an escalation of interethnic contradictions, which escalated into a large-scale military conflict that lasted until the fall of 1995. Military actions were stopped thanks to the active efforts of the international community. In accordance with the agreements reached in Dayton (USA) in Paris, on December 14, 1995, the warring parties signed the “General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina,” also known as the Dayton Agreement.

Government structure and political system of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The process of state building in Bosnia and Herzegovina is at its initial stage. This is a state with a unique form of structure and government, combining elements of a federation and confederation (the institution of collective presidency, the presence of two armies, etc.). The Constitution adopted in 1995 is in force (part of the Dayton Agreement).

Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of two Entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska.

The largest cities: Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Tuzla, Mostar, Zenica.

The function of the head of state is performed by a collective body - the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which is made up of three representatives of the state-forming peoples. The highest legislative body is the Parliamentary Assembly (parliament), consisting of two chambers (the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives). The highest executive body is the Council of Ministers.

Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina: B. Paravac (Serb), S. Tihich (Bosniak) and D. Covic (Croat) (2003).

Collegium of the House of Peoples: V. Jukic (Croat), G. Milojevic (Serb) and M. Pamuk (Bosniak).

Collegium of the House of Representatives: S. Jafarovic (Bosniak), N. Spirich (Serb) and M. Raguzh (Croat).

Members of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the leadership of the parliamentary chambers rotate in place of the presiding officer every 8 months.

The head of the Council of Ministers is A. Terzic.

Members of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina and deputies of the House of Representatives are elected by direct secret ballot separately in each entity (Serbian representative in the Presidency and 1/3 of the deputies of the House of Representatives from the Republika Srpska, representatives of Bosniaks and Croats in the Presidency and 2/3 of the deputies of the House of Representatives from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina). The term of office is 4 years (the current composition was elected in 2002). The House of Peoples (5 Serbs, 5 Bosniaks and 5 Croats) is formed by the parliaments of the Entities.

Entities (Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska) have broad powers with elements of state independence and have their own Constitutions. The functions of the executive and legislative powers in each of the Entities are carried out by the president, government and parliament, which act virtually independently of the central authorities.

The party system is built on a national basis. The leading parties represent Serbs, Croats and Bosniaks: Serbian Democratic Party, Croatian Democratic Commonwealth, Democratic Action Party. Attempts are being made to create multi-ethnic parties (the most influential of them is the Social Democratic Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina).

Domestic policy is aimed at implementing the Dayton Agreement, which provides for the strengthening of state institutions, the return of refugees, the settlement of interethnic relations, and the modernization of the economy. The wide international presence (peacekeeping military contingent, the institution of the High Representative, etc.) has a significant impact on the internal life of the country.

The main priorities of foreign policy are integration into European and Euro-Atlantic structures and regional cooperation.

The armed forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina are represented by two independent armies of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republika Srpska in a ratio of 2: 1. The total strength is approx. 12 thousand people

Bosnia and Herzegovina has had diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation since 1995.

Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina

GDP - 5.1 billion US dollars, GDP per capita - 1194 US dollars, number of employed - 625 thousand people, unemployed - 435.5 thousand people, unemployment rate 41%, inflation - 0.2% (2001).

Sectoral structure of the economy (by contribution to GDP): industry - 25.3%, agriculture - 11.9%, service sector - 62.8%

The most important industries: ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, production of electricity and building materials, metalworking, textile and leather and footwear, petrochemical, woodworking, food.

Agriculture: crop production, incl. grain farming (corn, wheat), gardening, vegetable growing, viticulture, industrial crops (flax, tobacco, olives, sugar beets); pasture livestock farming (cattle, sheep).

Transport: railways (1031 km, traffic volume 3.2 million tons), asphalt roads (3788 km), airports in Sarajevo (280 thousand people per year), Mostar (100 thousand people), Banja Luka (40 thousand people), Tuzla (special transportation).

Communications - telephone, postal, telegraphic, teletype, radio, Internet, etc.

The tourism sector is in the recovery stage (before the military conflict, tourism revenues amounted to 2.5% of GDP).

Economic policy is focused on two directions: restoration of the economy destroyed during hostilities and its reform on a market basis. Social problems are solved largely through foreign financial assistance.

The Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina pursues a policy independent of the Bosnian authorities aimed at firmly supporting the exchange rate of the local currency KM to the euro. As a result, there is virtually no inflation in the country, which is achieved essentially by non-economic methods. The banking system is in its infancy (there are 40 commercial banks, some of them with foreign capital).

The state budget (530 million KM for 2003) is formed on the basis of contributions from entities and performs limited functions: servicing external debt and financing the activities of national bodies. In the tax sphere, a reform process is underway with the aim of introducing a unified value added tax in the country. Domestic debt - approx. 8 billion KM, external - 5 billion KM.

The average salary is 686 KM.

The foreign economic sphere is distinguished by a significant trade deficit (exports - 2.1 billion KM, imports - 8.2 billion KM, 2002). Export structure - raw and processed aluminum, electricity, timber, textiles, leather goods; import - oil and oil products, food industry products, machinery and equipment, electronics. Main trading partners: Croatia, Italy, Germany, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro.

Science and culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Bosnia and Herzegovina has a three-level education system. The first stage is the basic compulsory 8-year comprehensive school, the second is a 4-year gymnasium or secondary vocational school, the third is universities (4-5 years of study). The main universities are located in Sarajevo, Banja Luka and Mostar. The largest scientific center is the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina was formed under the influence of various traditions. The surviving ancient buildings bear the imprint of the Roman era; the Middle Ages are distinguished by a mixture of Byzantine and Central European styles. Under the Turks, numerous mosques, madrassas and bridges were created, many of which became widely known architectural monuments (Begova and Ali Pashina mosques in Sarajevo, the Old Bridge in Mostar, the bridge in Visegrad, etc.). For con. 19 - beginning 20th centuries characterized by imitation of Eastern and Renaissance culture (the building of the city hall "Vecnica" in Sarajevo). Along with mosques, majestic Orthodox and Catholic churches have been created here (the Church of the Holy Virgin and the Cathedral in Sarajevo). During the military conflict, a significant number of architectural and historical monuments on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina were completely or partially destroyed.

Bosnian literature and art have been significantly influenced by the country's complex and dramatic history. The best works are devoted to a philosophical understanding of the difficult fate of the Bosnian peoples (novels by Nobel laureate I. Andrić and M. Selimovic, paintings by I. Muezinović, etc.). The work of internationally recognized film directors E. Kusturica and D. Tanovic is associated with Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The goals of the post-war restoration of the cultural traditions of Bosnia and Herzegovina are served by international events held annually in Sarajevo: the music festivals “Sarajevo Winter” and “Nights of Bascarsija”, the festival of experimental theaters, the Sarajevo Film Festival.

Located in southeastern Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. It borders on Croatia in the north and west, Montenegro in the southeast, and Serbia in the east.

The country's name comes from the name of the Bosna River and the Hungarian he-rceg- "voivode". Capital. Sarajevo.

Official name: Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Capital: Sarajevo

The area of ​​the land: 51.1 thousand sq. km

Total Population: 4.5 million people

Administrative division: Consists of two historical regions: Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Form of government: Republic.

Head of State: Chairman of the Presidium, consisting of three members (Bosnian, Serb, Croat), who alternate in office every 8 months.

Population composition: 31% Serbs, 49% Bosniaks (Muslim Bosniaks), 14% Croats, 0.6% others

Official language: Bosnian (Bosanski), Serbian, Croatian

Religion: 40% are Muslims, 31% are Orthodox, 15% are Catholics, 14% are adherents of other faiths - 14%.

Internet domain: .ba

Mains voltage: ~230 V, 50 Hz

Country dialing code: +387

Country barcode: 387

Climate

Temperate continental. The general picture of the natural and climatic conditions of the country is heterogeneous - in fact, here you can observe a wide variety of microclimatic zones associated with the peculiarities of the local topography - even neighboring sections of the same valley can differ noticeably from each other in weather due to different topography. Characteristic features of the local climate also include rapid changes in local weather during the day, which is associated with different heating of mountain slopes under the influence of sunlight, changing its azimuth and angle of incidence during the day.

The average summer temperature in the valleys is from +16 to +27 C, and up to +10-21 in the mountainous areas (in the capital the average July temperature is +21 C). In winter from 0 C to -7 C, respectively (in the capital in January it is about -1 C, but the temperature can drop to -16 C). Precipitation ranges from 400 (eastern mountain slopes) to 1500 (western) mm per year, mainly in summer and early winter.

Geography

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a mountainous country located in the heart of the Balkan Peninsula in southeastern Europe. It borders with Croatia in the north, south and west (total length of the border is 932 km), with Serbia in the east and Montenegro in the south. The long and narrow “Neum corridor” stretches between the borders of Croatia and Montenegro to the Adriatic coast (the coastline is only 20 km wide).

Bosnia occupies the northern part of the federation, along the valley of the Sava River and its tributaries. Herzegovina is located further south, in the Neretva River basin. The Serbian Republic occupies the north-eastern part of the country adjacent to Serbia. The total area of ​​the country is 51.1 thousand square meters. km.

Flora and fauna

Vegetable world

Forests occupy 41% of the country's territory. There are almost no native broadleaf forests left on the northern plains, which are now occupied by agricultural land. In the north in the foothills and on mountain slopes up to a height of approx. 500 m grow oak and hornbeam forests with an admixture of maple and linden. Beech trees are common in the central regions, and above 800-900 m above sea level. – beech-fir forests with an admixture of maple, pine and spruce. In the upper mountain belt, above 1600–1700 m above sea level, subalpine meadows are common. In the subtropics in the southwest of the country, evergreen forests (maquis) and deciduous shrubs are common up to an altitude of 300–400 m; higher in the mountains there are forests of southern species of oak, hornbeam and maple.

Animal world

In the mountains of Bosnia and Herzegovina there are chamois, red deer, roe deer, brown bears, wolves, wild boars, lynxes, forest cats, otters, martens, and many hares. Lizards, snakes, and turtles are common in karst areas. The avifauna is rich. Large birds include eagles, falcons, and wood grouse. The mouth of the Neretva River is characterized by swampy landscapes. Great and little egrets, various waterfowl, and birds of prey include golden eagles, great spotted eagle, and white-tailed eagle are found there.

Banks and currency

Convertible mark (KM or VAM), equal to 100 pfennigs (fenigs). The convertible mark is equal to the euro in the proportion 1KM = 0.51129 euros. In circulation there are banknotes in denominations of 200, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 1 and 0.5 marks (the latter is gradually withdrawn from circulation since March 31, 2003), as well as coins in denominations of 2 and 1 mark, 10, 20 and 50 pfennigs. Both federal units of the country issue their own versions of banknotes; on Bosnian stamps all inscriptions are made in Latin, on Serbian ones - in Cyrillic. But the colors and denominations of the banknotes are the same, and banknotes of all issues are in free circulation throughout the country.

The Croatian kuna and the Serbian dinar are used in areas adjacent to their respective borders. US dollars and euros are virtually ubiquitous, although in many Serbian areas dollars are practically useless, usually only large hotels and banks accept them.

Banks are open from Monday to Friday from 08.00 to 19.00.

It is advisable to exchange money only in official institutions - banks, hotels and exchange offices, since when exchanging on the street the percentage of fraud is very high. All receipts received when exchanging money should be kept, as they will be required for the return exchange when leaving the country.

Using credit cards is difficult. You can withdraw money from them only in the offices of banks in the capital, as well as in some hotels, restaurants, post offices and shops in the capital and Medugorje. ATM ATMs have begun to appear more and more often, but for the most part they only serve Maestro and Visa cards.

Travel checks can only be cashed at bank offices, but the procedure for verifying their authenticity is extremely lengthy.

Useful information for tourists

It is customary to leave tips in taxis and expensive restaurants. It is advisable to exchange money only in official institutions - banks, hotels, exchange offices, since there is a high possibility of fraud.

The standard of living in the country is extremely low, so it is not recommended to carry large amounts of cash with you to avoid robbery.

The content of the article

BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA(BiH), a state on the Balkan Peninsula. It borders on Croatia in the north and west, and Serbia and Montenegro in the east and southeast. Has access to the Adriatic Sea. The length of the coastline is 20 km. From 1878 it was part of Austria-Hungary, from 1918 - the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, from 1929 - the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, from 1945 to April 1992 - the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

After the Turkish conquest, the Bosnian Bogomils were converted en masse to Islam (only a few Bosnians adopted the Christian faith, particularly the Catholic faith). Massive, unique conversions gave Bosnia a special status within the Ottoman Empire. The territory of Bosnia was preserved and expanded to include a number of Croatian territories. The Muslim elite of Bosnia received the status of hereditary nobility.

Bosnia's religious landscape became more complex after migrants called Vlachs, who considered themselves Orthodox Christians, joined the Ottoman Empire's border guards in northwestern Bosnia. Over time, they began to identify themselves with the Serbs. In addition, during Ottoman rule, a significant proportion of Herzegovina's Catholic population converted to Orthodoxy.

In 1839, after several centuries of struggle against feudal landowners, the government declared the equality of all subjects of the Ottoman Empire before the law and abolished the feudal military system.

In 1848, the governor of Bosnia abolished the so-called korve - free labor of serfs for their landowner. Less wealthy landowners (duh) did not want to lose their corve, but their rebellion (1849-1851) was suppressed. The feudal landowners completely reconciled with the government when it issued a decree in 1859 declaring the feudal lords the full owners of the land and turning the peasants into sharecroppers. According to this decree, the peasants received freedom; but many of them, of their own accord or under pressure, renounced their rights to lease land. In 1875 there were several hundred beys (or large landowners), more than 6 thousand agas, 77 thousand peasant families (mainly Muslim) and 85 thousand families of sharecroppers, mostly Orthodox (Serbs) and Catholics (Croats).

Some landowners sought to retain the corve and the higher rents that were granted to them by the law of 1848. Due to a bad harvest in 1875, Herzegovina was struck by famine. The uprising that broke out that same year was both political and economic. For ideological reasons, it split into several movements: for unification with Serbia, for unification with Croatia and for autonomy. By decision of the Berlin Congress of 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina was transferred to the rule of Austria-Hungary.

Austro-Hungarian rule.

During the period of Bosnia and Herzegovina's administration by the representative of Austria-Hungary, Benjamin Kállai von Nagy-Kallo (1883–1903), the region's economy developed rapidly. Railroads were laid, banks were founded, wood processing plants and tobacco factories were built. However, at the same time, dissatisfaction with the policies of Kalai, which established a semi-colonial regime based on officials from Austria-Hungary, also grew. In addition, Bosnia and Herzegovina became an arena of rivalry between Croats and Serbs. The Austro-Hungarian administration discouraged the province's ties with Croatia and encouraged regional national feelings.

The struggle for Bosnia and Herzegovina reached its climax in 1903 with the accession of Peter I Karageorgievich to the throne in Serbia. Amid growing Serbian nationalism, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, bringing Europe to the brink of war.

Even before the annexation, control of the Serbian nationalist movement in Bosnia and Herzegovina began to gradually shift from conservatives to radicals. The younger generation of Serbian nationalists sought unification with Serbia, without neglecting any methods, including terrorist ones. Terrorists who had contacts with Serbian military intelligence, after the failure of a number of assassination attempts on Austro-Hungarian officials, managed to kill Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June 1914. This political assassination in Sarajevo prompted Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia and triggered the First World War.

Yugoslav period.

At the end of the First World War, when Austria-Hungary collapsed, Bosnia and Herzegovina became part of the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (in 1929–1945 - the Kingdom of Yugoslavia). In the period between the two world wars, the dominant Muslim party, the Yugoslav Muslim Organization (YMO), fought for the autonomy of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but King Alexander I Karadjordjevic (1921–1934), after declaring a royal dictatorship in 1929, divided Bosnia and Herzegovina into several banovinas. In 1939, Yugoslav Prime Minister Dragisa Cvetkovic reached an agreement with Croatian opposition leader Vladko Macek (1879–1964) to create an autonomous Banovina Croatia. Subsequently, the territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina, where the majority of the population were Croats, were included in Croatia. This strategic mistake demoralized many Muslims and caused both Serbian and Croatian nationalists to consider the remainder of Bosnia as a legitimate part of Serbia.

During World War II, Germany and its allies divided Yugoslavia into several regions, incorporating Bosnia and Herzegovina into the independent state of Croatia, an Axis satellite led by the Ustasha movement. This period was characterized by the persecution of Serbs by the Ustaše; there were also clashes between Muslims and Serbian Chetniks, who advocated the creation of a monarchy.

Post-war Bosnia and Herzegovina received the status of a republic in the Yugoslav federation created on the Soviet model by Josip Broz Tito. During the first post-war years until 1966, the governing bodies of the republic were dominated by Serbs, who continued the persecution of Croatian and Muslim nationalists and all religious communities. Subsequently, Tito came to rely more heavily on the communist leaders of Bosnia and Herzegovina, who took a hard line to thwart the ambitions of both Serbia and Croatia. At the same time, Tito supported the Bosnian Muslims as an established national group, creating increasingly favorable conditions for them as a price for loyalty to his regime. After Tito's death, Serbian claims to Bosnia began to grow, while Muslim separatism and Croat resistance grew stronger.

Civil War.

On November 18, 1990, after the first post-war elections in BiH on a multi-party basis (as part of the SFRY), the communists transferred power to a coalition government consisting of representatives of three parties: the Party of Democratic Action (SDA), which was backed by the bulk of Muslim Bosnians; Serbian Democratic Party (SDP) and Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ). Thus, the anti-communist coalition received 202 of the 240 seats in both chambers of the BiH Assembly (SDA - 86, SDP - 72, HDZ - 44).

After the elections, a coalition government was formed from representatives of parties from all three Bosnian national communities. In the elections to the Presidium of BiH, F. Abdic and A. Izetbegovic won in the Muslim quota, N. Kolevich and B. Plavsic in the Serbian quota, and S. Klujic and F. Boras in the Croatian quota. The Chairman of the Presidium was the leader of Bosnian Muslims A. Izetbegovic (b. 1925), who even before the beginning of the 1990s advocated the creation of an Islamic state in Bosnia.

The Croatian J. Pelivan was elected Prime Minister of BiH, and the Serbian M. Krajisnik was elected Chairman of the Parliament. The tactical pre-election coalition collapsed already at the beginning of 1991, as Muslim and Croat deputies proposed to discuss the Declaration of Sovereignty of BiH in parliament, while Serbian deputies advocated maintaining it within Yugoslavia. Thus, the national Serbian Democratic Party under the leadership of Radovan Karadzic, even before the formal declaration of independence of the republics, declared its goal to unite all Serbs in one state. Already by the autumn of 1991, under the impression of military actions in Croatia, Muslim deputies called for the declaration of independence of BiH, and Croats and Serbs were called “national minorities” in a memorandum to parliament. Serbian deputies, as a sign of protest, left parliament on October 25 and created its analogue, the “Assembly of the Serbian People.” On January 9, 1992, they proclaimed the formation of the Serbian Republic of BiH (later renamed the Republika Srpska) and elected Radovan Karadzic (b. 1945) as its president. These decisions were taken taking into account the results of the plebiscite in the Serbian part of BiH.

In response to such actions, Croatian and Muslim deputies called for a national referendum, which took place from February 29 to March 1, 1992. Despite the boycott by the Serbs, 63.4% of voters took part in the referendum, with 62.68% of them voting in favor independence and sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina (40% of citizens with voting rights). On April 6, 1992, the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina was recognized by the EU countries, although not all questions about the relationship between the three constitutional constituent parts (based on nationality) of a single state were resolved.

Since March 1992, military clashes began in BiH due to the blocking by Muslim paramilitary forces of units of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) leaving Bosnia. Already in April, these events provoked a civil war, which began with attacks on Sarajevo and other cities.

On May 12, 1992, the Bosnian Serb Assembly decided to create the Republika Srpska Army under the command of General Ratko Mladic (b. 1943). By this time, parts of the JNA had left Bosnia, although many of its soldiers took part in the fighting as part of the new army. In 1992–1993 they controlled approx. 70% of the country's territory, while Muslim armed groups are approx. 20%, and the rest - Croatian troops. Ethnic cleansing occurred in all three parts of BiH, which became increasingly ethnically homogeneous.

On July 3, 1992, the Croatian population of Bosnia proclaimed the creation of the Croatian Commonwealth of Herzeg-Bosna (since 1993 - the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosna) led by President Krešimir Zubak. The aggravated internal situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina required the intervention of international forces - the UN and the OSCE.

In 1992–1993, the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina sought support from the European Union, the United States and the United Nations. A small UN security force was stationed in the country and economic assistance was provided. At the end of 1992, peace negotiations began in Geneva, led by Lord D. Owen (Great Britain) and S. Vance (USA), representing the EU and the UN, respectively. The plan, formulated by EU and UN mediators, initially envisioned dividing the country into 10 ethnically homogeneous regions in a loose federation with a weak central executive and economic authority. The Bosnian Serbs under the leadership of Radovan Karadzic, who had captured a significant part of the territory, were supposed to return it to the Muslim Bosniaks. Only the Bosnians and Croats agreed with this plan, and the Serbs categorically rejected it. Croatian troops began the war with the Bosniaks in order to annex into Croatia areas that were not yet controlled by the Serbs. US President Bill Clinton initially expressed support for the idea of ​​a multinational Bosnian state, but soon made a statement about his intention to arm the Bosnians and use NATO military aircraft against the “Serbian aggressors.”

By the fall of 1993, Owen, together with the Norwegian diplomat T. Stoltenberg, who replaced Vance, proposed a new plan, according to which a unified BiH was built on confederal principles and included three national territories. In accordance with the Washington Accords signed on March 18, 1994, Duke-Bosna was transformed into the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, including the territories inhabited by Muslim Bosniaks and Croats. Since some areas were controlled by Serbian armed forces, they had to be liberated first, and for this purpose the peacekeeping force was increased to 35 thousand troops with the leading participation of NATO countries. On February 27, 1994, the NATO Air Force shot down 4 Serbian aircraft, and on April 10 and 11 bombed Serbian positions.

Initially, the clashes were of a positional nature, but in July Bosnian Serb troops captured the Muslim enclaves of Srebrenica and Zepa, threatening Gorazde.

In August–September 1995, NATO aircraft began bombing Bosnian Serb positions. This led to the acceleration of negotiations, which were mediated by the United States. For the first time during the war, the government of Bosnia and Herzegovina agreed to recognize the autonomy of the Serb community (on 49% of the territory of BiH). In turn, Serbia and Croatia recognized Bosnia and Herzegovina. The negotiations laid the basis for an agreement between these three political forces on the issue of the final boundaries of the disputed territories. After the death of 37 people on August 20, 1995, as a result of a bombing at a market in Sarajevo, which was blamed on the Serbs, NATO aircraft began to carry out massive strikes on their combat positions, and the joint Croat-Muslim forces went on the offensive. The territories they controlled eventually exceeded 51% of all BiH.

To resolve the situation, on November 1, 1995, negotiations began at an air base near Dayton (Ohio, USA) to resolve the Bosnian conflict. They ended on November 21, 1995 after the initialing in Dayton by Serbian President S. Milosevic (who headed the joint delegation of the FRY and Bosnian Serbs), Croatian President F. Tudjman and Chairman of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina A. Izetbegovic of the General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A peacekeeping contingent was left on the territory of the state. The world community in BiH is represented by civilians - the High Representative for the Coordination of Civil Aspects of the Dayton Accords, the head of the OSCE mission, the special representative of the UN Secretary General, representatives of individual countries, as well as a 60,000-strong military contingent (its number is gradually decreasing), the core of which is NATO troops . The international military presence deterred previously warring parties from continuing hostilities. However, the governments of both state entities in Bosnia and Herzegovina did not seek cooperation. Despite international financial assistance, the country's economy was characterized by a complete collapse of industry, trade and other sectors of the economy, and a high level of unemployment. In addition, many refugees were unable or unwilling to return to their homes. The Serbian part of Sarajevo was handed over to Muslims, which approximately 150 thousand people left.

In general, the war in BiH claimed more than 200 thousand human lives, and more than 200 peacekeepers also died. From the eastern part of Bosnia, approx. 800 thousand Muslims, from the western and central parts - approx. 600 thousand Serbs, and from the central - approx. 300 thousand Croats.

Modern Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Dayton Agreements came into force after they were signed on December 14, 1995 in Paris. Bosnia and Herzegovina remained intact, but was divided into two entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH) (Bosniaks and Croats) and the Republika Srpska (RS) (Serbs). 51% of the territory went to the FBiH, and 49% to the RS. Each entity had its own legislative bodies, government, police, administrative apparatus, and armed forces.

Since December 1995, in the context of a large-scale external military and political presence, Bosnia and Herzegovina has actually turned into a protectorate, although the number of military personnel has been reduced to 30 thousand people. Since January 1996, the international community began to exercise political control over Bosnia and Herzegovina through its High Representative. From January 1996 to June 1997, this post was held by K. Bildt, former Prime Minister of Sweden. In June 1997 he was replaced by K. Westendorp, former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Spain.

The first government elections after the war took place on September 14, 1996. The election of representatives of government structures took place at seven levels, including the federal Presidium, as well as the parliaments of the Republika Srpska and the Federation of BiH. Several coalitions took part in the elections. One of them, the Joint List of Bosnia and Herzegovina (EU BiH), united the Social Democratic Party, the Croatian Peasant Party, the Bosniak Organization and the Republican Party. The Coalition for a United and Democratic United Bosnia and Herzegovina (KED) was formed by the Democratic Action Party (SDA), the Party for BiH, the Liberal Party and the Civic Democratic Party. The Croatian Democratic Community took part in the elections independently. The two main Serbian parties - the Serbian Democratic Party (SDP) and the Serbian Radical Party (SRP) RS - went to the elections with a single list. The Union for Peace and Progress (SMP), a coalition of Bosnian Serbs that united the Independent Social Democratic Party (NSDP), the Socialist Party of the RS (SP RS) and the Social Liberal Party (SLP), also announced participation in the elections. A small single list called “RS Opposition” was formed by several small opposition parties in the Republika Srpska. In the Federation of BiH, the KED coalition received 67% of the votes of the electorate, the Croatian Democratic Commonwealth and SDP/SRP - 18 each, and the EU BiH - 10%. In the Republika Srpska, the SDP/SRP collected 61% of the votes, the Opposition RS – 22, KED – 13 and the EU BiH – 2%. In general, in the two entities of BiH, the winners in the general parliamentary elections were: KED - 43% of those who took part in the vote, SDP/SRP - 15%, HDZ - 11%, EU BiH - 7%. The leaders of the winning parties in the elections were elected to the Presidium of BiH - Muslim A. Izetbegovic, Serb M. Krajisnik and Croat K. Zubak. A. Izetbegovic became the Chairman of the Presidium of BiH. B. Plavsic was elected President of the Republika Srpska.

After Dayton, the integrity of the country was ensured by the implementation of the agreement under NATO supervision. Parliamentary elections in BiH, as well as presidential elections in Republika Srpska, were held on September 12–13, 1998 under the patronage of the OSCE and in the presence of 3,000 observers. In these elections, along with the previous coalitions (for example, KED, SDP/SRP, etc.), new ones were formed and took part. Among them is the Sloga coalition, which united the NSDP, the Serbian People's Union (SNS) and the Socialist Party of the RS (SP RS). The SDA remained in the KED, and the CDU participated in the elections independently. In these elections in Republika Srpska Sloga, the coalition won 33% of the votes, SDP/SRP - 37%, SDP - 2%, KED -19%, HDZ - 1%. In the Federation of BiH, the votes of the electorate were distributed in the following order: KED – 49%, HDZ – 20%, SDP – 14%, SD – 4%. Thus, the Social Democratic parties collected 18% of the votes of the federal electorate.

As a result of the elections, the following coalitions and parties are represented in the federal parliament of BiH: KED - 17 parliamentary seats, HDZ BiH - 6, Social Democratic Party of BiH - 6, Sloga coalition - 4, Serbian Democratic Party - 4, Serbian Radical Party RS - 2, Democratic People's Union – 1, Independent Croatian Initiative – 1, Radical Party RS – 1.

In the House of Representatives of the Federation of BiH, deputy seats were distributed as follows: KED - 68 parliamentary seats, HDZ BiH - 28, Social Democratic Party of BiH - 25, Independent Croatian Initiative - 4, Democratic People's Union - 3, Democratic Party of Pensioners - 2, Bosnian Patriotic party -2, Croatian Party of the Right -2, Socialist Party of the Republika Srpska - 2, Bosnian Party of the Right - 1, Center Coalition - 1, Bosnian Party - 1, Croatian Peasant Party - 1.

In the parliament of the RS, the Serbian Democratic Party received 19 seats, the KED - 15, the Serbian National Union - 12, the Serbian Radical Party of the RS - 11, the Socialist Party of the RS - 10, the NSDP - 6, the Radical Party of the RS - 3, the Serbian Coalition of the RS - 2, Social -Democratic Party – 2, Coalition for King and Homeland – 1, HDZ BiH – 1, Independent Croatian Initiative – 1. Thus, positions of power both in the country as a whole and in its individual parts were occupied by nationalist-oriented politicians, representatives of such “mono-ethnic parties” ”, like SDA, CDU and SDP.

The Presidium of BiH included A. Izetbegovic from Muslims, A. Jelavic from Croats, and Z. Radisic from Serbs. At the end of 1998, the leader of the Socialist Party of the Republika Srpska, Zivko Radisic, became the Chairman of the Presidium of BiH; it is replaced in turn (every 8 months) by A. Izetbegovic, who advocates for a “united Muslim” Bosnia, as well as A. Jelavic, who advocates the annexation of the Croat-populated part of the country to Croatia. At the same time, the pro-European-minded B. Plavšić was replaced as president of the RS by the leader of the nationalist-minded Serbian Radical Party, Nikola Poplashen. On March 4, 1999, by decision of the High Representative of the international community in Bosnia, K. Westendorp, he was dismissed, and the presidential post remained vacant for a year and a half.

In the spring of 1999, BiH did not develop a unified state position in connection with the crisis in Kosovo. Its constituent parts supported the Stability Pact for South-Eastern Europe, signed on June 10, 1999 by the parties to the conflict and neighboring countries. The already undermined economy suffered significant losses from the blockade of Yugoslavia. At the same time, the Bosnians and, to a lesser extent, the Croats actively supported the positions of the Kosovars, and the Serbs - the FRY. At the same time, the leadership of BiH assumed that the crisis would serve as a reason for the accelerated admission of the country to NATO.

Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 21st century

In 2000–2001, BiH continued to be a deeply divided country, with a central government with little real power, an economy based on humanitarian aid, and unity enforced by the UN and NATO. However, integration trends in politics and positive changes in the economy were emerging and intensifying. Thus, with the help of the German Volkswagen and the Czech Skoda, the production of local passenger cars of outdated models was launched, which were exported to neighboring countries.

A little more than 50% of voters took part in the parliamentary elections on November 12, 2000. In general, the elections were held with serious violations and did not follow the OSCE scenario, which assumed the participation of the Bosnian Serbs. In the federal parliament, the SDP won 26.6% of all seats, the SDA - 24.9% and the CDU - 23.1%. The leader of the Social Democratic Party, B. Matic, became the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, supporting the course of integration of the country. In July 2001, after his resignation, Zlatko Lagumdzija became Prime Minister of BiH.

In the Federation of BiH, the Social Democratic Party of Z. Lagumdzija won with a slight advantage (25.9% of mandates), the second place was taken by the SDA - 25.1%, the third - the HDZ (19.5%), the fourth - the Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina of the former head of the cabinet H. Silajdzic.

The Serbian Democratic Party won a convincing victory in the elections to the Parliamentary Assembly of BiH from the Republika Srpska, to the People's Assembly of the RS itself, as well as in the elections of the President and Vice-President of the RS. In the People's Assembly of the RS she holds 36.8% of deputy mandates. M. Sarovich was elected President of the RS, D. Chavic was elected Vice-President. M. Ivanich became Prime Minister. The party of independent Social Democrats of the former Prime Minister of the Republic of Sakha M. Dodik lost the elections.

In November of the same year, BiH restored diplomatic relations with the FRY, and on January 22, 2001, V. Kostunica visited the country, who was met by all three co-chairs of the Presidium of BiH. On March 5, an agreement on diplomatic relations between the FRY and the RS was signed in Banja Luka.

2001 was a decisive year in establishing contacts between official representatives of the Russian Federation, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska. Thus, in December, BiH Prime Minister Z. Lagumdzija arrived in Moscow with the aim of establishing business ties between the two countries.

On March 22, 2001, the UN Security Council recognized the situation in BiH as satisfactory, although it condemned some manifestations of nationalism. At the same time, the prospect of the return of most of the 400 thousand refugees by mid-2001 remained uncertain. By the beginning of 2002, the peacekeeping contingent in BiH amounted to 17.5 thousand people.

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